MANUAL 

OF 

INFORMATION AND SUGGESTIONS 

FOE 

OBJECT LESSONS, 

IN A COURSE OF 

ELEMENTARY INSTRUCTION. 

ADAPTED TO THE USE OF THE 

SCHOOL AND FAMILY CHARTS, 

AND OTHEK AIDS IN TEACHING. 



By MARCIUS W1LLSON, 

AUTHOR OF "WILLSOn'S HISTORICAL, 6ERIE8," " 6CHOOL AND FAMILY READERS, 
&C, &C. 



THIRD EDITION. 



NEW YORK: 

HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS, 

FRANKLIN SQUARE. 

1863. 



L"E>15 
VI 7+ 

1 %3 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year one thousand eight 
hundred and sixty-two, by 

Harper & Brothers, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Southern District of 
New York. 




VW See the Appendix for an " Approximate Programme" of a course of Elementary- 
Instruction during the first ten years of school life ; a collection of Maxims and Mottoes 
for School Use ; Table of Contents ; and a complete Index. 



INTRODUCTORY. 



THE PRINCIPLES ON WHICH THE SYSTEM OF 
OBJECT TEACHING IS BASED. 

1. The System not New in Principle. 

The system of instruction by "object" teaching, as it has 
been called, but which we should prefer to call the Devel- 
opment System, is nothing new in principle or purpose; for 
it is fully carried out in Nature's teachings in the early 
years of childhood ; and it is the system ujjon which near- 
ly all valuable knowledge has been accumulated in the pro- 
gressive civilization of the race. It is to a degree, however, 
new in its application to the methods of early school in- 
struction, in which we think we shall show we have most 
departed from Nature and from enlightened experience. 

2. Nature's System of Teaching. 

It is known that the child, from one to four years of age, 
acquires knowledge far more rapidly than at any subse- 
quent period of life. In these three years it has attained 
great proficiency in a language of peculiar intricacy, speak- 
ing it with considerable fluency, and mastering many of its 
most difficult idioms ; it has learned to recognize, and give 
the names, and know many of the qualities and uses of a 
thousand objects ; and this it has done by keeping the 
senses of touch, taste, hearing, sight, and smell — the per- 
ceptive faculties — in almost constant and pleasurable activ- 
ity. These active workers have seldom wearied of their 
self-imposed labors, and never been injured by over-exer- 
tion ; for the natural exercise to which they have been sub- 
jected has been to them health and strength, and the in- 



4 MANUAL OF INFORMATION" 

terest the mind has taken in their acquisitions has made 
every toil a pleasure. And yet, at this period of life, all 
the powers and faculties are comparatively feeble, so that 
we are forced to the conclusion that whatever the mind 
has accomplished is attributable chiefly to the system of 
instruction which has been pursued. 

Nor is it the mere acquisition of knowledge that has 
been thus early accomplished. The perceptive faculties 
have had that kind of training which has peculiarly con- 
tributed to give them accuracy and vigor: the attention 
has been cultivated by presenting to it objects of interest 
and of suitable vai-iety : memory has been pleasurably, and 
hence profitably exercised: reason and judgment have had 
presented to them the materials for their early cultivation ; 
and the germs of the moral nature have been developed in 
the early emotions of infantile joy and sorrow, followed by 
feelings of sympathy, and the first notions of right and 
duty. 

We believe there are some very important principles in 
this system of Nature's teaching, that should be consider- 
ed and adopted in arranging a system of school instruction. 
We pui'pose to point out a few of these principles, hoping, 
by showing how far we have departed from them, to indi- 
cate a system more in accordance with that of Nature- 

3. Early Development of the Perceptive Faculties. 

What are, then, the means by which the child acquires 
all its materials or knowledge ? It may seem a truism to 
answer that the means or instruments are the senses, 
which we may class together as forming the perceptive 
faculties ; and yet the truth seems overlooked, if we are 
to judge from the little attention given to the principles 
upon which they act, and the proper means of their educa- 
tion. The perceptive faculties are developed in early child- 
hood by appropriate exercise upon the objects which are 
presented to them : and we think the great desideratum is 
to discover the principles upon which they have thus been 
exercised in the school of Nature. Let us first take the 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 5 

senses of sight and hearing — the most important of our 
senses in an educational point of view — and inquire in what 
order knowledge is obtained through them, that we may 
learn, if possible, where to begin in the presentation of any 
subject to children. 

4. The "Elementary" Theory— generally adopted. 

"Begin with the elements" of a subject, says one: "Re- 
duce everything to its elements," has become a stereotyped 
phrase with educators. We are asked, " What can you 
have more sinrple than the elements of a subject; and shall 
we not begin with them ?" This is, indeed, the funda- 
mental principle on which our systems of primary education 
have been based ; and the theory looks like a very plausi- 
ble one. In fully carrying out this system, we are told, 
when we come to teach the alphabet, that the letters are 
formed by combinations of certain elementary lines, straight 
and curved, and that the true method is to teach the ele- 
ments first, by which the compound may be thoroughly un- 
derstood. The same theory directs that we should begin 
with similar elements — with the most elementary lines — in 
writing and in drawing. In reading, we are told that the 
spoken words are formed by combinations of certain ele- 
mentary sounds, and therefore the pupil must begin with 
these. It is true that all these so-called elements are wholly 
unmeaning things to the child — that they have no ideas con- 
nected with them ; but what of that ? In teaching spelling 
we come as near to the elementary system as possible, by 
giving long columns of mere words to be spelled, not one in 
twenty of which has any meaning to the child. In arith- 
metic we begin with certain marks or signs, called digits, 
because these represent the elements of arbitrary numbers. 
In grammar we begin by taking a sentence, and teaching 
a child the subject, predicate, object, attribute, etc., because 
these are said to be the elements of the language. In geog- 
raphy we begin by teaching the infantile mind the form of 
the earth, perhaps its place in the solar system, its zones, 
latitudes and longitudes, and great divisions of land and 



6 MANUAL OF INFORMATION" 

water, because these things are supposed to be the element- 
ary parts which make up the science of geography, and as 
if these were the first things which mankind learned about 
the earth, instead of being the last. These are sufficient 
illustrations of the principles on which our systems of edu- 
cation have been based. Let us now look at Nature's sys- 
tem, under which the child had progressed so finely during 
its early years, and see if the two harmonize. 

5. Nature's System— How opposed to it. 

The child early learns to recognize a great variety of sur- 
rounding objects, and to designate them by their appropri- 
ate names. Thus, an object is presented to the sense of 
sight, causing sensation: if attention be sufficiently direct- 
ed to the sensation, the latter is followed by perception, 
when an idea, image, or representation of the object is pre- 
sented to the mind. Language now seeks an expression — 
a word or name — by which to represent the idea. Here 
the order of sequence, as in all cases of Nature's teaching, 
is, first the idea, and then the word to express or repre- 
sent it ; and it will be found that Nature never inverts the 
order; never takes a step in instruction that requires a 
sign to be learned before the thing signified is presented ^ 
This is as true as that sensations and perceptions precede 
ideas, and as certain as the truism that the mind can never 
give expression or representation to what it does not pos- 
sess ; and when the attempt is made to present to the mind 
words and signs before the ideas and tilings signified, Na- 
ture is outraged, and the fundamental principles of educa- 
tion are violated. It is very probable, therefore, that Na- 
ture's method is the true one, for it is based upon the only 
order in which the mind acquires knowledge. Let us use 
this principle to test some of our methods of instruction. 

I will suppose that a child four years of age is placed in 
my charge, and that I am to commence its school instruc- 
tion. Its perceptive faculties have already received con- 
siderable culture from the tutelage of its first teacher, Na- 
ture : it has acquired considerable knowledge of surround- 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 7 

ing objects, and .ill in the order of sensations, perceptions, 
ideas, words. It can use spoken words, but has not learn- 
ed to recognize the printed representations of them. I wish 
to teach it to read, and first take up the alphabet for that 
purpose, because I have been told that I must begin with 
the elements of the printed words. I commence with A, 
B, C ; but I can associate, in the mind of the child, no ideas 
with them ; and the rule which Nature has given me is, 
ideas before signs. The child has no ideas of which these 
marks are the signs. 

Another theoretical educator comes along, and tells me 
I have not reduced the subject to its simplest elements ; 
that there is something even more elementary than the let- 
ters of the alphabet, for these letters* are compounded — 
made up — of elementary straight and curved lines. I then 
begin with these supposed elements, and attempt to teach 
the child all the forms of the lines that enter into the struc- 
ture of the letters. But, alas ! the process seems more and 
more tedious the nearer I get to the idtimate elements, and 
when again I revert to the rule of the great teacher, Na- 
ture, I find I am still violating its principles, even more, if 
possible, than before. 

At this time another beautiful theory is presented to me : 
I am told to leave the alphabet for the present, and to be- 
gin to teach reading with words. This surely, I think, 
must be the natural order, for the child uses words before 
it is taught the letters which compose them. But, in order 
to learn to read and speak the printed words, I am told 
that the child should first learn the elements of the spoken 
words, that is, the elementary sounds of the letters ; for 
these, it is very evident, the child uses in speaking a word 
— and it could not speak a word without using them. It 
does not occur to me that this beautiful elementary theory 
would require a knowledge of the nerves and muscles of the 
arm before the arm should be allowed to be used in the 
practice of muscular motion ! I proceed with the pre- 
scribed method, and, presenting to the child the separate 
letters of the word cap, I teach it their elementary sounds: 



8 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

then I tell the child to combine these three elements, and 
am gratified to find that the compound is the spoken word 
cap ! I have taught the child to pronounce the word ele- 
mentarily ! But when I look more closely at this process, 
I find that I presented to the child the word cap before the 
idea ; and also that these elementary sounds were not pre- 
ceded by any ideas of which they were the representatives ! 
Even this, therefore, can not be Nature's method, nor in 
accordance with the natural development and use of the 
mental faculties. I am satisfied, therefore, that I have not 
yet discovered the natural method of teaching reading, and 
must begin anew. 

I now present to the child a real object — a cap. Sup- 
pose it had never seen one before. The object produces, 
through the organ of sight, a sensation : if sufficient atten- 
tion be given, perception follows, connecting the sensation 
with the object, and an image or idea of the object is then 
formed in the mind. Now, for the first time, a word, a 
name, is wanted, to give outward expression in language 
to the idea. If some particular articulate sound is now 
given the child to meet this want, it ever after represents 
the object by that sound or name. The idea, the want, 
has come before the representative sign. 

But how does Nature teach us to represent the idea or 
image of the object to the eye? First by a picture of the 
object, as we see in the picture-writings of all nations 
emerging from a state of barbarism. After a time the pic- 
ture is dropped, and more arbitrary but more convenient 
marks or signs are substituted, as we find in the arbitrary 
letters and words of our printed language. The printed 
word, however, like the picture, represents, by association, 
the object, or the idea which perception gives of it ; and 
as in nature it never precedes the idea, so it should not in 
our teachings. 

Suppose, then, that the child has already learned to rec- 
ognize numerous printed words, as the word-pictures of ob- 
jects, and to read these words at sight as the signs of pre- 
viously-acquired ideas. These words now become intellif 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 9 

gible objects both of sight and of hearing, and may be treat- 
ed as any other objects. They are formed of certain char- 
acters called letters / and now these letters, for the first 
time, have a significancy, as parts that make up a well- 
known object ; and their separate forms now begin to be 
recognized, and may be taught, not as making up an arbi- 
trary and unmeaning alphabet, but as making up words 
that represent ideas. For a like reason, after a knowledge 
of the words which they form, the elementary sounds of 
the letters may be learned, for now, for the first time, they 
are seen to form a whole or compound, which represents a 
previously-acquired idea. 

If, therefore, we are correct in following out the princi- 
ples adopted in Nature's teaching, neither the letters of the 
alphabet nor their elementary sounds are of any use in the 
primary work of teaching to recognize or call words — that 
is, in teaching reading — so far as the use of words is con- 
cerned for the mere expression of ideas. But after this 
first and primary object has been attained, and reading be- 
gins to be made one of the fine arts, and to take on the or- 
namental, it may receive much additional beauty, and va- 
riety, and force by elocutionary training of the ear and the 
voice in recognizing and uttering the elementary sounds. 
These exercises may, indeed, be introduced immediately 
after the words are fully learned, but should not precede 
them. 

From the principles already deduced by observing Na- 
ture's method of teaching, it is evident that we should be- 
gin primary instruction in arithmetic, or numbers, with ob- 
jects, and not with their arbitrary representations — with 
peas, beans, or other objects, or with the fingers of the 
hand, if you choose ; but not with the arbitrary digital signs. 
Go as far as possible with concrete numbers — invariably as- 
sociating numbers with the objects, just as Nature teaches. 
Children, unaided, learn much of geometry, and may be 
taught much more of it practically ; but not by taking it 
up in the order of its so-called elements. The elementary 
principles of geometry are said to stand in the order of 

A 2 



10 MANUAL OF INFOKMATTON 

points, lines, figures, surfaces, and solids ; but who does not 
know that a child gains ideas of the solid first, and proceeds 
thence through surfaces, figures, and lines, to points ? The 
merest child has obtained from Nature a very considerable 
knowledge of solids long before it has any other idea of a 
point than of a material one. Here, as in all other cases, 
it proceeds from the concrete to the abstract, and from the 
whole to the parts which compose it ; just as it learns words 
first, and proceeds thence to their letters and elementary 
sounds. 

6. The great Error in our Systems of Primary 
Instruction, 

"We believe the great error in our systems of primary 
instruction is the prevalent idea that we should view every 
subject as a completed science, that we should then reduce 
the science to its so-called elements, and begin our teach- 
ings with these. But this is a total inversion of the order 
in which every science has been built up in the growth of 
the race, and opposed, also, to the order of mental devel- 
opment, and, consequently, to the principles upon which 
knowledge is acquired by the individual. What we now 
call the elements of a subject are the expressions of its gen- 
eral truths — the final results — the few general facts or prin- 
ciples which science has deduced from a large collection of 
facts after the structure has been completed ; aud as nei- 
ther nations nor individuals arrive at these elements first, so 
they should not first be presented to children. What are 
the elementary sounds of our language but the results of 
investigation by scholars after the language had attained 
its present degree of development ? And yet, even schol- 
ars do not agree as to the number and character of these 
sounds, nor are they the same in all languages. Let us 
bear in mind that the rudimentary facts of a science are one 
thing, and its elementary principles another ; the facts are 
the first things learned, and by simple perception ; the pi*in- 
ciples are the last things learned, and they are acquired by 
a much more advanced mental process — that of generaliza- 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 11 

tion. JVature, dealing only with facts, teaches the particu- 
lars, and then we make the generalization. Hence we see 
why our perceptions are right, and why our rules and prin- 
ciples are often wrong. 

We remarked at the outset that the system of "Object" 
teaching is not new in principle, and that it is not only car- 
ried out in Nature's teachings, but that it is the system 
upon which nearly all valuable knowledge has been accu- 
mulated in the progressive civilization of the race. 

7. All Science built up on the " Object" System. 

All science has been built up upon this system ; all origin- 
al investigators and discoverers even now adopt its meth- 
ods ; it is only when w T e come to the elementary instruction 
of the school-room that we depart from its principles. Let 
us bring up a few cases in illustration. 

If we look at the science of botany we shall find that it 
has grown from small beginnings by a close examination 
of the objects themselves. Amid the infinite diversity which 
the vegetable world presents, certain points of resemblance 
were at a very early period noticed by the most casual ob- 
servers, sufficient to form the basis of some sort of a classi- 
fication, even though it may have been as rude as that given 
by the poet Cowley when he divided the vegetable world 
into three great classes — herbs, flowers, and trees. But 
when LinnaBus, and after him Jussieu, laid the foundation 
of the science of botany as it now exists, it was not by 
speculative theories formed in their closets, but by close 
observation of Nature herself — such a course as we have 
attempted to sketch the outlines of in the lessons on sev- 
eral of the charts in this series. Look at the " Forms of 
Leaves," as presented on Chart No. XIX. All these Avero 
closely examined in the natural objects themselves by the 
early botanists, and names given to them. Thus, different 
species of plants were found to vary in the general forms 
of their leaves, some having linear leaves, some ovate, some 
cordate, or heart-shaped, etc. ; some species w r ere found to 
have their margins entire and unbroken, others had them 



12 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

variously toothed or serrate ; in some species the tips of 
the leaves were sharp-pointed, or mucronate; in others, 
blunt, or truncate ; and in others, notched, or emarginate ; 
but in all the individuals of each species the family resem- 
blance was so uniform as not to be mistaken. Yet not a 
step could be taken in building up the science of botany 
until all such particulars, and others similar to them as to 
the forms of the stems, flowers, roots, etc., were noticed. 
And if children would have the most accurate knowledge 
of the forms and colors, and other characteristics of indi- 
vidual plants, they must be led to notice the real plants 
themselves, or their representations. Mere description is, 
for the young, a very poor substitute, although it may an- 
swer, where nothing better can be had, for the mature schol- 
ar, who, having carefully observed one thing of a kind, is 
prepared to judge of others of the same kind by it ; just as 
a child that has closely examined one labiate flower is pre- 
pared to judge of all other labiate flowers by that one; and 
when he sees a certain leaf, and is told that particular form 
is called elliptical, he knows the shape of any other leaf 
that is described as being elliptical, and of any thing else 
in nature that is so described. It is very apparent, there- 
fore, that the true method of instruction is to present the 
object first, or the representation, if the object can not be 
obtained, and not the description. First the idea is to be 
acquired, and after that the words which represent it almost 
spontaneously follow. 

This is as true, both of the method of discovery, and of 
all approved subsequent study, in all other sciences as in 
botany. Not only did the discoverers in anatomy examine 
every bone, and nerve, and muscle, and vein, and artery, 
and notice their varied uses, and their conditions of health 
and disease, but we think it necessary that students in anat- 
omy at this day should pursue the same course of instruc- 
tion. Does not the geologist examine the rocks them- 
selves ; the astronomer turn his telescope to the heavens, 
that he may see with his own eyes ; the chemist go over in 
his laboratory the experiments of his predecessors ; and the 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 13 

scientific farmer study the conditions of vegetable growth 
in the analysis of soils and plants, and in experiments based 
on what he thus learns ? And if" seeing is believing," and 
leads older students in the most direct road to knowledge, 
does not the same principle hold good with children ; and 
ought we not, as far as possible, to pursue the same sys- 
tem in their education ? Let them learn by the evidence 
of their own senses as far as they can, for then they will be 
apt to learn aright. In the knowledge thus acquired they 
are always interested. To see is to know, but that which 
is merely told is often unheeded, misapprehended, or dis- 
believed. We see, therefore, that Nature teaches, and that 
science progresses, from the observation of the rudimentary 
facts, upward to the rules and principles which are the gen- 
eralization of them. And why should we, in our school in- 
struction, invert the order ? 

8. Why Science is adapted to Childhood, 

It is easy to see that, when presented in the true indue- ' 
tive order, all the natural sciences, which are buiit up of 
facts from the great book of Nature, are peculiarly adapt- 
ed*to the capacities of childhood — giving constant activity, 
as they do, to the perceptive faculties, and storing the mind 
with materials for the further exercise of memory, compar- 
ison, association, imagination, reason, and judgment. Many 
subjects which are put far advanced, even in the curriculum 
of college studies, by reason of the inverse order in which 
they are presented in books, are thus seen to be connected 
with the common matter of every-day life, and their rudi- 
mentary facts to be constantly passing under the observa- 
tion of children. A little pebble is a very common matter, 
which children often handle with little interest ; but con- 
nect it with the geological history of our earth — show how, 
in some deep and quiet sea of a bygone age, it was slowly 
deposited, particle by particle, and finally became hardened 
into stone — show the strange animals and plants that were 
its contemporaries — how it was subsequently broken from 
its rocky bed ; and after being tossed and buffeted by the 



14 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

waves for ages longer, until, worn into its present form, it 
was left where you chanced to find it — and it at once he- 
comes an object of curious regard in the eyes of the in- 
telligent child ; for in its little self it presents the records 
of a history wonderful and grand in the extreme. Thus 
every pebble from the brook, every shell from the sea-shore, 
every plant from the fields or wayside, and every star that 
twinkles in the evening sky, becomes a rudimentary fact 
of scientific knowledge — a fact which even children can 
comprehend. What we need is to present such facts (and 
there is a boundless store of them ready at our hands) 
in their appropriate order, in a system of primary instruc- 
tion. Let our reading-books prepare the way for this sys- 
tem, both for teachers and pupils, by giving to all some lit- 
tle insight into the mysteries contained in the great volume 
of Nature, which, unhappily is yet a sealed book to many 
of our educators themselves ; and then let the system of 
" Object" teaching, now being inaugurated, work out the 
• details. 

9. Why " Grammar" is not adapted to Childhood.* 

Perhaps in no branch of education do we violate nature 
more than in the manner in which we presume to teach 
children " the art of speaking and writing the English lan- 
guage with propriety ;" or, as it is called, English Grain- 
mar. Language grows up with the child as a habit / he 
uses the same words and forms of expression that are used 
by those with whom he is brought most in contact ; he im- 
itates them, whether they speak correctly or incorrectly, 
and one form of expression is just as natural to him as an- 
other, and just as correct, after he has formed the habit of 
using it. His ear is the medium of all the instruction in 
language which he receives in a course of natural training ; 
and. his language grows up, just as language has grown up 
in the progress of the race. If the language to which he 
has been accustomed has been correct, he needs no farther 

* By "Grammar," as will be seen, we do not mean the study and 
practice of language, but the study of the philosophy of language. 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 15 

instruction to teach him to speak correctly ; if it has been 
wrong, he needs to be told what forms he should use, and, 
in addition, as all the forms of language are arbitrary, and 
as he has learned to use them by habit, he needs some kind 
of training that shall form other habits. But, injthe ordi- 
nary mode of teaching, the child is set to learning those 
principles which unfold the philosophical construction of 
the language — such as what the subject or nominative is, 
what the predicate or verb, and object — qualities, attri- 
butes, connectives, disjunctives, etc.; and then the rules of 
syntax, in accordance with which the different parts of this 
arbitrary system are hinged together. But all this is a 
very roundabout method for leading to the substitution of 
one arbitrary form for another. Now the expression "I 
is" is just as good, primarily, as " I am ;" but if we would 
have the child change the former for the latter form, is it 
necessary first to construct an elaborate science, then from 
the science deduce the rule that " a verb must agree with 
its nominative in number and person," and then have the 
child learn the rule in accordance with which the expres- 
sion shall be corrected? But even when the child has 
learned the rule, can he correct the expression any better 
by its aid ? Does he see Avhy "I" and " am" agree any bet- 
ter than " I" and " is ?" why the former expression is cor- 
rect, and the latter wrong ? Nature has built up the lan- 
guage, not in accordance with arbitrary rules, but in ac- 
cordance with usages which have grown into habits. Lan- 
guage knows no other law. 

It would seem, therefore, that if a child speaks incorrectly 
we should better secure the desired change by direct cor- 
rection than by rules ; for the rules, in addition to the long 
road it takes to reach them, are just as arbitrary as the 
simple correction, and much more difficult of comprehen- 
sion by children. And why should children be expected 
to learn to speak by rule a language that was never formed 
by rule ? The rules are the final deductions of the science 
of language; and though they are said to embrace its ele- 
mentary fyrinciples, they are not what either individuals or 
nations first learn in the acquisition of a language. 



16 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

What we have said here on the subject of instruction in 
language has reference to primary education only — to the 
simple matter of the art of speaking and writing correctly, 
which, however, the ordinary study of grammar seldom at- 
tains to-^-and not to the course which may be pursued by 
scholars who wish to make themselves acquainted with the 
philosophy of language. 

As some confirmation of our views on this subject — if 
they need any other support than is to be found in the facts 
already presented — we would refer to Herbert Spencer, 
who gives very satisfactory reasons, upon general princi- 
ples, for denouncing what he calls " that intensely stupid 
custom, the teaching of grammar to children" M. Marcel 
says : " It may without hesitation bo affirmed that gram- 
mar is not the stepping-stone, but the finishing instrument." 
Mr.Wyse argues: "Grammar and syntax are a collection 
of laws and rules. Rules are gathered from practice ; they 
are the results of instruction, to which we come by long ob- 
servation and comparison of facts. It is, in fine, the science, 
the philosophy of language. In following the process of 
nature,' neither individuals nor nations arrive at the science 
first. A language is spoken, and poetry written, many years 
before either a grammar or prosody is even thought of. 
Men did not wait till Aristotle had constructed his logic, 
to reason. In short, as grammar was made after language, 
so ought it to be taught after language." 

10. How Language is to be taught. 

But how, it will be asked, shall we teach language? 
We reply, just as Nature teaches it. Cultivate the pei*- 
ceptive faculties (to which " object" teaching is specially 
adapted) to their greatest extent, so that they may supply 
the mind with the greatest possible number of valuable and 
clearly-conceived ideas — the materials of knowledge, as 
well as the soul of all language. The faculty or power of 
speech is then to be exercised in accordance with those 
forms of language which custom prescribes ; and, like all 
other faculties, exercise alone can give it proper cultiva- 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 17 

tion.* The only difficulty that intervenes is where wrong 
habits of speech have already been formed by violations 
of the natural law of usage. The wrong habits need to be 
corrected ; but this is not a legitimate part of education, 
any more than the giving of medicine for violations of Na- 
ture's laws is a part of the economy of Nature. "We do 
not think the natural and direct remedy is to be found in 
studying the philosophy or grammar of the language, but 
in the supplanting of the bad habits of speech by correct 
ones, and in the same manner that any other habits arc 
formed. The following is the remedy which has been found 
most successful in our own experience. 

11. Correction of bad Habits of Speech. 

"We once had charge of a large school of boys, nearly 
all of whom had formed such habits of speech that, in their 
ordinary conversation and in recitations, there was an al- 
most constant violation of grammar and good usage ; and 
although their faulty expressions were often corrected, and 
they knew them when pointed out, yet inveterate habit 
ruled in spite of all our efforts. "We then supplied every 
pupil with a pocket blank-book and pencil, and required 
him to write down every wrong (ungrammatical) expres- 
sion which he detected himself in using, or which he heard 
from his associates ; and a few minutes daily were devoted 
to reading and commenting upon these expressions. In a 
short time the most obvious faults disappeared from the 
school-room and play-grounds. "We closely watched the 
operations of the system. W r e soon observed, when a 
question was asked or answer given improperly in the 
school-room, that, although the pupils at their desks seem- 
ed to be absorbed in their studies, they would detect the 
faulty expression sooner than any thing else, and jJencils 
would be busy in minuting it down. In fine, we observed 
that the ears of the pupils were being rapidly trained to 
detect these faults, just as the ears of the musician become 

* See the exercises in speaking and writing ("Composition") which 
accompany the use of the charts. 



18 MANUAL OF INFOEMATION 

trained to detect discords in music; and we found that 
when this was fully accomplished, the evil was corrected. 
We were satisfied that one month's time of this kind of 
training was worth more to our youthful pupils in acquir- 
ing the art of speaking correctly than two years devoted 
to studying the rules and principles of grammar. 

We adopted the same general plan with those advanced 
students who were studying the philosophy of the language 
from the grammatical text-book, for we observed that the 
rules of correct speech had very little influence in form- 
ing in them correct habits of speaking, just as we know 
some teachers who pride themselves upon teaching English 
grammar, but who are continually murdering the " King's 
English" in their ordinary conversation. We required 
our students — young men — to write down not only the 
ungrammatical expressions which they detected them- 
selves, their classmates, and their teachers in using, and 
which they heard in sermons, lectures, etc., and found in 
standard books, but also such forms of expression as were 
rhetorically or philosophically defective — a lai-ge and im- 
portant class, not covered by the ordinary rules of gram- 
mar. These formed the subjects of our most interesting 
and most important lessons in language. We found that 
such exercises, by training the ear and the eye to detect 
what had before often passed unnoticed, were the only ef- 
fective means, where wrong habits had been previously 
formed, of making practical grammarians. 

12. The "Natural Order," the first great Law of 
Development. 

Our observations have thus far had reference chiefly to 
the principles of mental development, and the consequent 
natural order in which subjects should be presented to the 
minds of children ; and we have illustrated our views by a 
few specifications. We may conclude, therefore, that this 
Natural Order of the presentation of subjects is the first 
great law of mental development, and that we may expect 
to be successful in our systems of education only so far as 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 19 

we adhere to the pi'inciples which the Great Teacher has 
developed in the laws of mind itself. We also infer that, 
as all the materials of knowledge are derived through the 
perceptive faculties, primary education should be directed 
chiefly to their culture, in accordance with the laws of their 
action : and if the rules, principles, and generalizations of 
science can not be comprehended by the mind until the 
perceptive faculties have supplied the rudimentary facts on 
which they are based, then we should not begin our teach- 
ing of a science with these generalizations. But all rules 
are generalizations. We should, then, discard rules until 
they are developed naturally from the accumulated percep- 
tions. We also infer that as Nature never gives children 
words until she has given them ideas which require expres- 
sion, so we should be careful in our teaching not to invert 
the order — not to teach the signs or sounds before we im- 
part ideas of the thing signified. And if Nature gives pei*- 
ceptions of an object as a whole before it notices the parts 
which compose it, we should adopt the same order of pre- 
sentation ; and if ideas of things concrete (as " a foolish 
man," "three apples") precede those of things abstract (as 
"folly," "three," etc.), we should learn a principle of edu- 
cation therefrom. It is on such principles of mental philos- 
ophy that the " object" system, or true development system 
of teaching is based. 

13. "Exercise," the second great Law of Development. 

But there is still another fundamental principle of educa- 
tion, to which we have yet scarcely alluded, but which is 
quite as important as the order of mental development and 
the order of presentation of subjects. It is this, that Exer- 
cise is the great law of man's threefold nature — mental, 
moral, and physical — and that without it there can be no 
development. Plants, attached to the soil, incapable of 
voluntary motion, and hence needing none, require for their 
perfect development only such suitable nourishment as na- 
ture provides ; but animals require, in addition, the exer- 
cise of all their powers and faculties ; and without it they 



20 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

never come to maturity, and when it is withdrawn even 
the physical nature languishes, all the faculties become en- 
feebled, and the animal soon dies. But while exercise is 
every where acknowledged to be absolutely essential to 
man's physical development, its importance in a specific 
training of the senses, as well as of the higher mental pow- 
ers, has not been fully appreciated ; and still less has it re- 
ceived its due consideration in moral culture.* And in 
still another wide field — in the exercise of the constructive 
energies of children for the purpose of giving regulated 
culture to the natural craving for invention and design — 
education has made no advances. A few suggestions on 
this subject will be found elsewhere in this volume. f 

14. What the true Development System aims at. 

The true development system, of which "object" teach- 
ing is only a part, is designed, in addition to its proper 
presentation of the materials of knowledge, to mark out 
such a course of training for the young, that all the facul- 
ties shall receive exercise of such an amount, kind, and 
quality as shall best conduce to the harmonious and com- 
plete development of the whole individual. The lessons 
throughout this volume will best show our views of the 
manner in which this may be accomplished, so far as they 
cover the ground of primary education. There are, how- 
ever, additional subjects happily adapted to this kind of el- 
ementary training — such as may be found in the boundless 
variety of the insect world and in the mineral kingdom — 
which are scarcely alluded to here, but which we hope to 
present hereafter in additions to the present volume, and 
in connection with additional charts, and the completed se- 
ries of the " School and Family Readers." It is not to be 
supposed that all the objects aimed at in this development 
or " object" system have yet been fully attained ; for not 
only is the system yet in its infancy, but no serious attempt 

* See remarks and directions on this subject in Calkins's "Manual 
of Object Lessons." 

t See remarks under the head of "Geometrical Drawing," page 54. 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 21 

has heretofore been made to reduce it to " working order," 
and to adapt it to the practical duties of the school-room. 
Defects in any complete course of primary instruction that 
can now be presented will doubtless be found ; but if the 
principles of the system are correct, the experience of 
teachers will soon suggest the proper corrections. 

15. No Danger of carrying the System too far. 

Apprehensions have been expressed in different quarters 
that this " object" system, or development system, may be 
carried too far. The fear, we imagine, has been on the 
part of those who do not understand its true principles. 
There can be little danger of its being carried too far, if it 
be what we have described it, and what teachers should 
make of it — a presentation of facts to the mind, in their 
natural order, and not of rules and theories. "Who will 
maintain that children are likely to see and hear too much, 
and that the voluntary exercise of their perceptive faculties 
is likely to be attended with any injury ? When we send 
children into the fields for recreation, we do not bandage 
their eyes nor close their ears, lest they may see too much 
of the myriad forms, shades, and colors of Nature, and their 
ears be too much ravished with its music ; but we think 
that all the delights which they can thus enjoy will make 
them both wiser and better. Seeing and hearing much do, 
indeed, cause children to ask questions almost innumerable, 
because it gives them a craving for knowledge ; and we 
wish we could say that parents and teachers have now 
more correct views of education than to check this inquis- 
itiveness. Knowledge acquired under the stimulus of 
childish curiosity is very different from lessons poured into 
an unwilling ear. Those who will look through the sam- 
ple lessons and exercises in this volume will see that they 
do not consist in telling about " common things," but in so 
presenting facts as to awaken the perceptive faculties to 
voluntary and pleasurable activity, for the purpose of de- 
veloping thought. In accordance with the true develop- 
ment system, instruction about common things — that is, 



22 MANUAL OF INFOKMATION, ETC. 

telling about them — should come in only incidentally, and 
after the awakening of a curiosity that thus seeks gratifica- 
tion. Seek, therefore, by every proper means, to awaken 
this curiosity in children, by the presentation of the natural 
objects or by the best pictorial representations of them, by 
oral descriptions, by anecdote and incident, by poetic allu- 
sions, and by such every-day reading lessons as shall em- 
brace a wider range of utility than the merely ornamental 
part of the art of reading — the mere calling of words in an 
elocutionary manner. 

We would remark here that the following exercises, ac- 
companying a description of the charts, are not intended 
to be followed out, necessarily, in the exact order in which 
they are here presented, which is in the order in which the 
charts are numbered ; for several of the charts will often 
be needed for daily exercises upon different subjects. The 
teacher must often arrange his own programme of grades 
and steps in object teaching, which will be regulated by 
the amount of time which he can devote to each subject ; 
but we would advise him to take as his guide, for early 
training, the Programme laid down by Mr. Calkins in his 
" Manual of Object Lessons ;" and for a more extended 
course we would refer to the " Approximate Programme" 
found in the Appendix to this volume. 

We would refer to the article on Drawing, as illustrated 
by Chart No. X., for some important principles in that de- 
partment; to the remarks on Geography, in connection 
with Chart No. XI., for an exposition of the true develop- 
ment system ; while the article on Colors, as illustrated by 
the chromatic scale on Chart No. XIV., we believe to be 
the most practiced exhibition of that subject that has ever 
been presented. 



N 



AN EXPLANATION OF THE 

SCHOOL AND FAMILY CHARTS, 

WITH SUGGESTIONS OF PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF DEVELOPMENT, 

AND INFORMATION FOR THE TEACHER. 

DESIGNED FOR AN EXTENDED COURSE OF ELEMENTARY INSTRUCTION, 
AND ADAPTED TO THE SYSTEM OF 

OBJECT TEACHING. 



While the charts, in connection with the present man- 
ual, are designed to carry out in a natural order the true 
development or " object" system of instruction, beginning 
with the very earliest scholastic training of children, they 
also embrace, as a part of that early training, the teaching 

Of the ALPHABET, of READING, of SPELLING, of PRINTING and 

drawing, of writing, and of ORAL composition. The first 
principles of numbers and of geography are also illustrated 
here, in accordance with the object system ; and if Ave have 
succeeded in our purposes, we have presented in the earlier 
numbers of the charts, with the accompanying directions, a 
complete programme of such a course of elementary instruc- 
tion as is required for the younger pupils in our schools. 
In what manner these subjects, as well as those more ad- 
vanced, are made parts of the object system, will be fully 
developed as we proceed with an explanation of the charts 
and their varied uses. Moreover, the information here 
embodied, as explanatory of the Natural History Charts — 
and especially in the departments of zoology and botany — 
is designed as the carrying out of the plan of the " School 
and Family Readers," by furnishing such additional valua- 
ble information in the Natural History departments as was 
much needed, and such as the Readers, from their necessa- 
rily elocutional character, could not fully embrace. It will 
now be seen, also, that the series of " School and Family 



24 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

Readers," the "Primary Object Lessons," the "Manual" 
by Mr. Calkins, with the present work (which harmonizes 
with it), and the " School and Family Charts," are intimate- 
ly connected in their design, principles, and plan, as parts 
of one system ; and we believe that these several parts 
will now be found combined into one harmonious whole. 



CHART No. I. ELEMENTARY. 

Here are sixty words, each illustrated, and they contain 
all the letters of the alphabet. We suppose the child, when 
this chart is first presented to it, not to know its letters nor 
any thing about reading. The child has, however, from 
Nature's teachings, already learned to distinguish a great 
many objects, and to call them by their appropriate names. 
Indeed, most of the objects represented on this Chart it is 
probably already familiar with, either from actually seeing 
the objects themselves or their pictures. The child has, 
therefore, already learned to recognize the objects, to rec- 
ognize thxeir pictxtred representations, and to designate them 
by their appropriate names. It has proceeded in the nat- 
ural order of, 1st, the idea, and 2d, the word to express it. 
Let the teacher pursue the same order — ideas before words 
— and the child will soon learn to read as naturally as it 
talks. 

Words taught as the Representatives of Things. 

As the child talks — that is, calls the names of things, and 
utters sentences — before it knows its letters or learns how 
to spell, so it will be found that the most natural order is 
to read words by sight before it learns how to spell them, 
or even to name their letters. Thus, the child sees an an- 
imal, and before it can tell all its parts, or, indeed, name 
any of them, it leai'ns to distinguish it as a whole, and to 
call it "dog." In the same manner it will easily learn a 
word as a whole, and name it, before it can readily distin- 
guish and name its several parts. 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 25 

Therefore let the teacher, in commencing his course of 
instruction at this point, and having, if possible, a class of 
beginners before him, point to the picture of a cap on the 
Chart, and ask what it is. Some pupil will probably say, 
" It is a cap." Teacher holds up a cap, and asks what that 
is. Pupils now observe the difference between the two, 
and say that one is a real cap, and the other the picture of 
a cap. Tell them that pictures represent things or objects, 
and that many words also represent objects. Ask them 
what word represents a dog. Ask them if they would like 
to see the icord which represents a cap. Point it out to 
them; tell them to see how it looks; ask them if they 
would know it if they should see it again. Ask them if they 
can find it on Chart No. II. The class find/biM* such words 
on Chart No. II. Let them find the same on Chart No. 
III., and tell which line it is in. Call attention to the num- 
ber indicating the line. 

In a series of lessons let them go through a similar course 
with all the other words on Chart No. I., and find the same 
words either on Chart No. II. or No. III. In Chart No. 
III. let them tell which line each word is found in. In this 
way they learn, additionally, to count, and to recognize 
numbers up to IV.* 

* On this Chart seven of the illustrations — those connected with the 
words cage, arm, swan, nest, pig, kite, and ox — represent more objects than 
the words. This may be thought an objection by some ; and if it shall 
be found so, we purpose to change them. We suggest, however, the fol- 
lowing advantages from retaining a sufficient number of such complex il- 
lustrations to break the uniformity of the others. 

When the child comes to the illustration connected with the word 
cage, ask it what the picture represents. The child will perhaps say, 
"A girl, a cage, and a bird." Tell the child that one word can repre- 
sent only one thing (or one collection of things, as leaf, leaves) ; and that 
the word here given represents the cage. This explanation arrests the 
attention, fixes in the mind of the child the particular thing represent- 
ed, and leads it to examine the pictures more closely ; so that when it 
comes to the third picture below, it notices there several objects, and 
wishes to know which of them the word represents. 

As each word on the Chart is learned primarily by associating it with 
its picture, perhaps the object in view will be as readily attained in the 

B 



26 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

Calling Words at Sight. 

Teacher places a strip of paper over the cuts in one col- 
umn at a time, and, pointing out the words, at first in reg- 
ular order, and afterward promiscuously, requires the pu- 
pils to name them. This is continued until all the words 
can be readily -called at sight. 

The Alphabet, Counting, and Printing, 

Teacher points to the word cap, and asks how many 
parts there are in that word. If the pupils can count a lit- 
tle, they say three. He tells them those three things are 
called letters. He points out other words, and requires 
them to tell him how many letters each contains. While 
they are thus learning to count, go back to the word cap, 
ask them to notice the shape of each letter in it, and tell 
them their names. After requiring them to examine at- 
tentively the first letter, C, and to notice and describe its 
form, he asks them, one by one, to point out and count the > 
Cs in the first column (6), in the second (none), in the third 
(none), in the fourth (2). 

After the lesson, let them draw (print) the letter C on 
their slates, and let some of them draw the same on the 
blackboard.* T$ is very important that, in these first at- 

case of the complex as the simple illustrations, while, additionally, closer 
observation and discrimination will be called forth in the former in- 
stance. 

If it should be found that the attention of the children is too much di- 
verted from the particular object and its name by the surrounding pic- 
tures, take a large newspaper, cut a hole in it of the size of the objects to 
which you wish to confine their attention, and cover up the rest of the 
Chart. 

* It may be objected that drawing should begin with straight lines in 
various positions, to be followed by curved lines in various positions, 
and that only after such elementary lessons should the pupil be allowed 
to combine them into the forms of letters. We think it would be just as 
reasonable to require the infant to move its hand through a series of ex- 
ercises in straight lines, and then through another series in curved lines, 
before it should be allowed to combine them in the graceful motions 
which Nature teaches. If the drawing in straight lines, or motion in 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 27 

tempts at drawing or writing, the pupils should have a long 
pencil, and that they should hold it just as they should hold 
a pen in writing. The habit of holding the pencil or pen 
properly can be easily formed at this period ; whereas the 
habit of holding it in an improper manner can be corrected 
only with the greatest difficulty. Let the class go through 
with A and P in a similar manner. 

When they come to the second word, Cat, they find they 
are already familiar with two of the letters, and they learn T 
as they learned the others. They thus continue until not 
only all the words on the Chart, but all the letters of the 
alphabet are familiar to them. They should count the num- 
ber of letters of each kind on the Chart.* Also the number 
of pictures, or words, in each column ; then on the whole 
chart. 

In making drawings of the letters on their slates, and on 
the blackboard, they will for a time make very awkward 
figures ; and not until they have acquired a considerable de- 
gree of control over the muscles of their fingers will they 
be able to form much of an imitation of the originals. 
Their very failures, however, will not be without advant- 

straight lines, could be shown to be any easier or more natural than 
curvilinear motions, there might be some show of reason for restricting 
the pupil to the tedium of strictly angular movements ; but we see no 
reason why both classes of motions may not be carried on simultaneous- 
ly in drawing, the same as in nature. Why, for example, confine the 
child for days and weeks to the monotonous exercise of forming the 
straight perpendicular line of- the letter P, before it is allowed to try its 
skill upon the circular part of the letter ? Will it not be likely to suc- 
ceed quite as soon in forming the entire letter, when it is allowed the 
pleasure of alternating the exercises ? What is needed is care in form- 
ing each part ; and this, we think, will soonest be acquired when the pu- 
pil can see the relation of each part to the whole. Moreover, the child 
sees no reason in making a long series of straight lines, and wearies of 
them ; but let him see how straight and curved lines are needed to form 
letters, and he will be interested in making them as accurate as possible. 
* The letter a is found on this Chart 20 times ; b, 8 ; c, 8 ; d, 8 ; e, 
27 ; F, 5 ; G, 10 ; H, 9 ; I, 12 ; J, 1 ; K, 5 ; L, 10 ; M, 6 ; N, 9 ; O, 26; P, 
6; Q, 1; B, 12; s, U; T. 8; u, 8 : v, 2; w, 7; x, 3; x, 3; z, 1=229 
letters. 



28 MANUAL OF INFOKMATIOJST 

age to them. When they have acquired some degree of 
steadiness, draw parallel horizontal lines. on the blackboard, 
and let them draw the letters between t&em, as a guide. 
Then let the pupils draw similar lines. 

While this series of drawing exercises is progressing 
from day to day, the exercises on Chart No. II. should be 
taken up; for the more familiar pupils become with the 
words, the easier will they learn the letters which compose 
them. They thus learn the letters after they know their 
uses, which is much better than the old, arbitrary, and te- 
dious method formerly practiced. 

The pupils will thus have learned, from this Chart, to 
call words at sight, as they tell the names of familiar ob- 
jects ; tO NAME THE LETTERS OP THE ALPHABET ; to COUNT; 

and to make a beginning in Drawing or writing. In the 
mean time they may have received some exercises on Chart 
No. II., to which we now proceed. 



CHAETNo.II. BEADING: FIRST LESSONS. 

This Chart embraces the First Series of Lessons in Read- 
ing, which is here arranged in six progressive Divisions. 

First Division of the Chart. 
Reading. — 1. Teacher points to the word cap, and asks 
the pupils to name it. They say " Gap?'' He points to the 
word cat, and they name that also. He tells them the word 
between these two is and, and then asks them to read the 
line (or phrase), which they now readily do. They then, 
by the aid of the pictures, easily read all the lines or phrases 
in the first division. 

2. Cover the pictures by a strip of paper, and require 
them to read without their aid. 

3. Also cover the words, and let them form the phrases 
by the aid of the pictures. 

Oral Composition.— 4. Turn back to Chart No. I., and 
require the pupils to form the words there, two by two, 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 29 

into similar phrases, connecting them by and, and repeat- 
ing them aloud — omitting, of course, the adjectives red, 
blue, pink, etc. Thus, " face and cage," " quail and snail," 
" arm and chair," etc. 

Spelling. — 5. They may now name the letters in the 
words on Chart No. I., and pronounce the words, still hav- 
ing the Chart before them. 

6. When they can thus spell out the words with consid- 
erable facility, cover the words, and, letting them see the 
pictured representations only, require them to name the 
letters from memory, and tell what words they form. 

7. It would now be well for the pupils to be supplied 
with Type Letter-cards, each card containing, on each side, 
the same letter of the alphabet. If they have these, place 
before them a large number of these cards, and, allowing 
them to look at the Chart, let them select and arrange 
these cards on the table, desk, or frame, prepared for the 
purpose, so as to form the words on Chart No. I.* 

8. Next, cover the words on the Chart, and let the pupils 
form them with the cards, by the aid of the pictures only. 

9. Let them spell out the words, and form the phrases, in 
the first division of Chart No. II., in a similar manner ; first 
looking at the pictures and words, and, secondly, having the 
words covered. 

Printing and Drawing.— 10. Let the pupils print the 

words in this division on their slates, and on the black- 
board, being careful to use a long pencil, and to hold it as 
they should hold a pen'. This should be done, not as a task, 
but as a recreation ; and if the pupils should occasionally 
leave this exercise for rude attempts at picturing animals, 

* A " Composing-frame" has been prepared for the purpose of holding 
the Type Letter-cards, which latter are to be arranged by the pupil so 
as to form words and sentences. A box of the accompanying Letter- 
cards contains not only the capitals and small letters, but also the marks 
of punctuation, accents, inflections, etc. , and all made of their proper 
relative height and width, to correspond with type of the same size of 
font. The pupils will find the use of these Letter-cards and Frame an 
agreeable pastime, and the most practically useful and interesting of all 
spelling exercises. 



SO MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

or any other appropriate objects, they should be allowed 
to do so without censure. Let them draw on their slates 
as much as they choose. Give them Chart No. X. to copy 
from, in accordance with the directions, p. 52-3. 

Counting. — ll. Let the pupils, during the preceding ex- 
ercises, count the letters in each word ; then in each line ; 
and, finally, in the whole division. 

Second Division of the Chart. 

Reading i — 1. The pupils will easily read these phrases, 
as the words and pictures are already familiar to them. 

2. Cover the pictures, and let them read the words. 

3. Cover the words, and let them form the phrases by 
the aid of the pictures. 

Oral Composition. — 4. Turn back to Chart No. I., and 
let the pupils, in a series of exercises, give to each noun 
there some descriptive term ; thus forming phrases similar 
to those in the Second JDivision of Chart No. II. Also let 
them give to each noun as many descriptive terms as they 
can ; as, a.red cap, a blue cap, a white cap, a black cap, an old 
cap, a new cap, a dirty cap, a soldier's cap, a night-cap, etc. 

Spelling. — 5. Let the pupils name the letters, and pro- 
nounce the words in this division, being careful to avoid a 
monotonous or drawling tone. 

6. Let them do the same when the words are covered. 

7. Let them, while looking at the Chart, use the cards in 
forming the same phrases. 

8. Let them do the same from me"mory, with the words 
covered. 

Printing and Drawing. — 9. Let the pupils print the 

words, and form the phrases in this division on their slates, 
and on the blackboard. Let them hold the pencil properly. 
Use Chart No. X., according to directions, p. 52-3. 

Counting. — Let the pupils count the letters in each word, 
each line, and in the whole division, as before. 

Third and Fourth Divisions. 
Divisions Three and Four should be gone through with 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 81 

in a manner similar to the Second Division. The few new 
words will now be easily learned. 

Fifth Division. 

Here are the first complete sentences that we have pre- 
sented, and they are given without illustrations. 

Reading. — These exercises may be similar to the pre- 
ceding. Let the pupils also name the words when pointed 
out to them promiscuously. This will show whether they 
recollect the word from its form, or from its position in the 
sentence. 

Oral Composition. — Let the pupils form similar declara- 
tive sentences with the verb to be (is and are), using, as the 
subjects, the nouns given on Chart No. I. Thus : " The cat 
is tame." "The bat is quiet;" or, "is sitting," etc. "Those 
lambs are tame*" " That cat is cunning," etc. This will 
exercise their ingenuity, and, while it will form a pleasant 
recreation, it will give them some ideas of writing compo- 
sitions. 

Spelling. — This should now be done chiefly by the aid of 
the Type Letter-cards (if the school has them) ; first form- 
ing the sentences in this Fifth Division, and afterward oth- 
ers similar to them. Spelling them aloud may also be prac- 
ticed. 

Printing and Drawing. — Let the pupils print the sen- 
tences in this division on their slates, and on the blackboard 
— using a long pencil, and holding it as a pen. 

Let them print as many of the new sentences, similar to 
them, as they can. Directions for Drawing, see p. 52-3. 

Counting. — The same as in the former divisions. 

Sixth Division. 

Reading. — As only two new words, " pet" and " new," 
are found in this division, the pupils will have little diffi- 
culty in reading all the sentences. 

Let them also name the words when pointed out to them 
promiscuously. 

Oral Composition. — 1. Let the pupils, by referring to 



32 MANUAL OF INFOEMATIOJST 

Chart No. I., form as many sentences as they can similar 
to those in this Sixth Division, giving to each noun used 
two descriptive terms or adjectives. As, An old blue cap. 
" A new wire cage. A large ripe pear. A pretty pink chair. 
A large iron box. A poor little fly, etc. 

2. Also let them separate the descriptive terms. Thus : 
A large and shaggy dog. A large and gentle ox. A fresh 
and pretty rose. A tall and lean hound. A sly and cun- 
ning fox. A fierce and roaring lion, etc. 

3. Let them use the verb to be with these latter exer- 
cises. Thus : The dog is large and shaggy. The rose is 
fresh and pretty, etc. These may be found rather difficult 
exercises for pupils at this stage of their progress, as it 
may not be easy for them to find two descriptive terms 
which they can use with each noun ; but if they accomplish 
only a little with these exercises, that little will be valuable 
to them, and probably all that their capacities require. 

When they have carried these exercises from Chart No. 
I. sufficiently far, let them form similar sentences with 
nouns of their own selection. 

Spelling. — The cards should be used to form, first, the 
sentences in the Sixth Division, and afterward others sim- 
ilar to them. The words may also be spelled aloud. 

Printing and Drawing.— The same as in the Fifth Di- 
vision. 

Counting. — The same as in the former divisions. Also 
let them now count two divisions consecutively; then 
three, four, five, and finally all the letters on the Chart. 



CHART No. III. READING: SECOND LESSONS, 
Reading. — This Chart contains all the words on the first 
Chart, and is designed to be used chiefly in connection 
with the first, as -before explained, for the purpose of test- 
ing the knowledge which pupils have of the words when 
seen apart from the illustrations. 

The pupils should also use this Chart for separate read- 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 33 

ing exercises until they become perfectly familiar with all 
the words. The teacher should be careful that the pupils 
do not let their voices fall at the commas. The voice re- 
ceives the rising inflection at the commas, and the falling 
at the period. Here are presented the first capital letters, 
which will now be gradually learned from this and the fol- 
lowing Charts, without calling special attention to them. 
The exercises here are numbered from 1 to 17 inclusive. 
Let the pupils learn the meaning of these figures. They 
have already learned to count, and should now begin to 
make an application of the figures. 

Oral Composition.— 1. Let each pupil take line No. 1, 
and connect an adjective, or some other descriptive word 
or words, with each noun, repeating the same aloud. Thus, 
" A blue cap, an old cat, a iong-eared bat, two tame lambs, 
and a gray rat." 

Let them go through with the entire Chart in this man- 
ner. 

2. Let each pupil take the words in the first line, and 
form them into clauses like the following, repeating them 
aloud, and connect the whole in one general sentence. 
Thus : " A cap for the boy, a cat to catch mice, a bat in 
the air, some lambs in the field, and a rat in his hole." 
" The arm of a man, a chair for the parlor, a ripe pear on 
the tree, and the claw of an eagle," etc. 

Let them go through with the entire Chart in this man- 
ner. This will exercise the ingenuity of the pupils, and 
call forth a proper spirit of emulation. 

Spelling. — The type-cards should now be used to form, 
first, the sentences on the chart, and then, as indicated 
above, others formed by the pupils. This will require 
them to use some of the capital letters, and also to spell 
some new words. If they are at first unable to spell these 
words, they may go for assistance to the teacher, who 
should print them on the blackboard, or let some older pu- 
pil do it. The pupils will then be able to form these words 
with their cards, while the very difficulties which they have 
encountered will lead them to observe words more closely, 

B 2 



34 MANUAL OF INFOEMATION 

and to see the importance of being able to spell them. 
They may also spell the words aloud. 

Printing and Drawing.— While some are setting up 
the sentences with the type-cards, others should print them 
on their slates or on the blackboard. Do not forget to re- 
quire them to hold the pencil properly. In these exercises 
be careful to use the figures where they can be properly 
used to number the exercises. 

Counting, Adding, and the Use of Figures.— The pu- 
pil is now supposed to be able to count, perhaps as far as 
a hundred. He has also learned something of the use of 
figures to designate numbers. To extend this knowledge 
farther, let the pupil set up with the Type Letter-cards, or 
print on the blackboard, the first lesson of Chart No. II., 
" Cap and Cat." Let him count the letters in the line, and 
place the number, 9, at the end of it. Let him also put the 
number of letters in each word under the word, and at the 
right the whole number, 9. Teach him that three letters 
and three letters more make six letters, and that six let- 
ters and three letters make nine letters. 

Let him continue these exercises throughout both Chart 
No. II. and Chart No. III. He will thus, with the little as- 
sistance which he will now be likely to obtain at home, 
soon learn to count and to add with considerable facility ; 
for when children are once put in the way of counting 
things, they are apt to teach themselves fast enough. All 
these exercises in numbers may be carried on in connection 
with or supplementary to the counting and adding of beans, 
pebbles, or other real objects, as indicated in the instruc- 
tions given in Calkins' Primary Object Lessons, beginning 
with page 138. 

In such exercises the pupil should not be kept bach for 
the sake of going through any regular system. The teach- 
er must exercise his own judgment in this matter, and 
adapt his instructions to the capacities of his pupils. 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 35 

CHAET No. IY. BEADING: THIRD LESSONS. 

Un connection with the exercises on this Chart, the pupils may take up the early- 
Reading Lessons in the Primer, or First Reader. They may also begin with the ex- 
ercises on Chart No. VII., Elementary Sounds, see page 43.] 

In the third series of Reading Lessons we enter upon 
more extended and complete sentences, which present the 
first exercises in elocution proper. For the principles of 
the inflections here presented, and the importance of early 
attention to them, we refer to the " Directions to the Teach- 
er," " Prefaces," etc., together with Reading Lessons, in the 
Primer and First and Second Readers of the " School and 
Family Series." 

Reading. — Here are fifteen subjects, presented by fifteen 
illustrations, with a short reading lesson on each. 

1. Let a pupil try to read the first lesson. If he fails in 
any of the words, let another try. If none can do it, the 
teacher should tell them the new words, and then have 
them read the line, and at the same time point out each 
word in it. They may also point out and name the words 
backward. (The teacher may find it desirable to cover up 
all the lines or lessons below the one which the pupils are 
reading.) 

2. Let them go through all the fifteen lessons in a sim- 
ilar manner. 

3. As soon as they know all the words in a line, the teach- 
er should read the line elocutionally, giving the proper in- 
flections, emphasis, etc., and should require the pupils to 
imitate him. Notice that the words printed in italics are 
to be pronounced with more emphasis than the others. 
Let the teacher illustrate the rising and falling inflections 
by a variety of examples, and have the pupils imitate him.* 

* The teacher should make himself perfectly familiar with Rules I. 
and II., page 8, and Rules III. and IV., page 22, of the Second Read- 
er, together with the abundant illustrations that are given. He may 
gradually explain these rules to the pupils in simple language, so that 
they may begin to apply the inflections to their own compositions, espe- 
cially in the two kinds of questions. 



36 MANUAL OF INFOEMATION 

4. Let each pupil read all the lessons consecutively, be- 
ing careful to give the inflections and emphasis properly, 
and avoiding the least appearance of monotony or a drawl- 
ing tone. 

Oral Composition and Writing.— 1. Call upon a pupil to 

tell something about the Picture No. 1 (the subject) different 
from the lesson given. Thus, " Three boys are running after 
the dog and the pig." Teacher, or some older pupil, may 
print the same on the blackboard. Another pupil may also 
tell something about it; and if his imagination should help 
him a little, his " composition" will probably be the better for 
it. He examines the picture closely, and makes up a com- 
position something like the following : "The pig's mouth is 
open. The dog holds the pig by the ear, and makes the 
pig squeal." Teacher, or some older pupil, prints this on 
the blackboard. Call the attention of the pupils to the 
pauses used. Tell them when the period is used, when 
the comma, etc. ; the apostrophe also, if it should be used. 

2. Next take the second picture, and let the pupils form 
compositions from that as the subject. Encourage them 
to put some questions into their compositions, like those in 
the reading lesson. Thus: "Ann is feeding the hens. 
There are two hens and a rooster. Why does not the 
rooster eat v ? "What is Ann feeding the hens with x ? Is it 
corn' ? She carries the corn in her apron," etc. Encour- 
age the pupils to notice and tell as many things about 
Ann, the engravings, etc., as they can. As, for example : 
"Ann has no bonnet on. She has long curly hair, and a 
short dress," etc. These may be printed on the board, or 
set up with the Type Letter-cards, with the proper pauses, 
inflections, interrogations, etc., which should be explained 
to the pupils. 

3. In a similar manner, all the illustrations should be 
taken up as subjects for compositions. 

4. The teacher may also call the attention of pupils to 
real objects, in the school-room or elsewhere, and require 
them to notice them carefully, and make up verbal compo- 
sitions about them, stating as many things or facts about 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 37 

them as they can. As soon as the pupils have learned to 
form the script letters, Chart No. IX., they may write out 
some of these compositions. See directions for script writ- 
ing, page 50. 

Spelling. — 1. A use of the Type Letter-cards, as before 
directed, in setting up, not only the lessons given on the 
Chart, but also such compositions as the pupils may form, 
will furnish a very valuable course of spelling exercises. If 
they fail in setting up the new words correctly, aid them. 

2. The teacher may also have them spell aloud both the 
words on the Chart, and the new words used. 

Printing and Drawing. — Let the pupils print (or write, 
if they have yet learned the script letters, Chart No. IX.) 
the lessons of this Chart on their slates, and on the black- 
board, putting in the numbers (figures) for the lessons, and 
paying particular attention to the capital letters. They 
should be told when to use the capitals. The pupils may, 
very likely, undertake to make drawings of some of the il- 
lustrations given here. They should be alloiced to do so, 
but without much special encouragement yet. It is sup- 
posed that they are now acquiring some facility in making 
letters / and when they can make these pretty well, they 
will be all the better prepared for picture or object drawing. 
In all their marking, or picture-making, it is important that 
they should use a long pencil, and hold it as they should 
hold a pen. 

Numbers. — In setting up a line with the Type Letter- 
cards, or in printing it, they may put the figures denoting 
the number of letters in a line at the end of the line; also 
the number in each word under the word. They may next 
add the figures aloud, and see if they can make their sum 
equal the number which they obtained in counting the let- 
ters. The teacher should vary these exercises as the ca- 
pacities of his pupils require. 



38 MANUAL OF INFOEMATION 



CHABTNo.Y. BEADING: FOITBTH LESSONS. 

[The Reading Lessons in the Primer, or First Reader, should he continued in con- 
nection with the exercises on this Chart. Also the exercises on Elementary Sounds, 
Chart No. VII. See page 43.] 

The reading lessons in this Fourth Series are somewhat 
more full than those of the preceding Chart, but they in- 
troduce no new principles. 

Reading. — Call the attention of the pupils to the subject 
of Reading Lesson No. 1. Let them notice, particularly, the 
illustrations, and then read the lesson. (While the pupils 
are engaged with any one lesson, it may be advisable to 
cover up the lessons below it, so that their attention may 
be given exclusively to the one lesson.) 

Oral Composition and Writing. — Let them now form 
verbal compositions on the subject of No. 1, in the manner 
directed for the preceding Chart. If they have learned the 
script letters, Chart No. IX., let them write out some of 
these compositions. 

Spelling. — Use the Type Letter-cards to set up this les- 
son, and also other lessons or compositions on the subject 
of No. 1. Also spell aloud the words. 

Printing and Drawing. — Let the pupils print or write 
Lesson No. 1, and also others which they may form on the 
same subject. For Drawing, see directions, page 52-3. 

Numbers. — The pupils having set up Lesson No. 1 with 
the type-cards, or printed it, let them count the letters in 
each line, placing the number at the end. Then let them 
place under each word the figure denoting the number of 
letters in it. Next, let them add aloud the figures in this 
latter row, and see if they can obtain the same number as in 
counting the letters. This is addition, and proving it. The 
teacher should show them how to write down numbers 
larger than 9. 

All the foregoing exercises on the subject of Lesson No. 1 
may be carried on nearly simultaneously with a large class ; 
or so many of them as may be necessary to keep the class 
fully occupied. They may occupy several days. After 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 39 

No. 1 has thus been disposed of, carry on, in a similar man- 
ner, a series of exercises for each of the remaining five sub- 
jects on this Chart. Pay attention to the inflections, etc., 
as before directed. 

Punctuation and Capitals. — It is now time to begin to 

pay some attention to these; for as the pupil sees them 
used, he will naturally wish to know why they are used, 
and when they should be used. Point out the period, and 
comma, and interrogation point, on the Chart ; show how 
they are usually made in books, and explain their uses. 

Tell them that the comma marks the smallest grammat- 
ical division in written or printed language, and that where 
it is found there should usually be a short pause in reading. 
(We would have omitted the word " grammatical" in the 
above definition, if we could have made the definition cor- 
rect without it.) 

The period, which is placed at the close of a sentence, 
shows that a full pause, or full stop, should be made there. 

Point out the interrogation point ; tell them that " to in- 
terrogate," means " to ask a question," etc. ; and that the 
interrogation point is placed at the end of a sentence which 
asks a question. 

The pupils began the use of words without any capital 
letters. Explain now the general rules only for using cap- 
itals ; such as, the first letter of a word after a period ; 
names of persons and places ; the pronoun I, and the in- 
terjection 0. 



CHART No. VI. HEADING: FIFTH LESSONS. 

[The Reading Lessons in the Primer, or First Reader, should be continued in con- 
nection with the exercises on this Chart. The teacher should pay special attention to 
the directions given in the Readers for avoiding a drawling and monotonous manner 
of reading, especially with beginners. Continue the exercises on the Elementary 
Sounds.] 

The Reading Lessons in this Fifth and last Series present 
a still greater variety than those of the fourth Chart. 
Reading. — Call the attention of the pupils to the subject 



40 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

of the first Reading Lesson, No. 1. Let them notice, par- 
ticularly, the illustration, and then read the lesson ; being 
careful to read in a natural and spirited manner, giving the 
inflections, etc. All the capital letters are given here ; and 
those which pupils are not already familiar with, they should 
now learn. 

Oral Composition and Writing.— Let the pupils now 

form verbal compositions on the subject of No. 1, in the 
manner directed for Chart No. IV. If they have learned 
the script letters, Chart No. IX., let them write out some 
of these compositions. 

Spelling. — Use the Type Letter-cards to set up this les- 
son, some of the compositions on the subject, and the cap- 
ital letters. Also spell aloud the words. 

Printing and Drawing. — Let the pupils print or write 
the Lesson No. 1, including the capital letters, and other 
lessons or compositions which they may form on the same 
subject. Do not let them fall into the habit of holding their 
pencil improperly. For Drawing, see directions, p. 52-3. 

Numbers. — Let the pupils continue the exercises of 
counting the letters in each line of the lesson, and adding 
the numbers denoting the letters in the several words in 
the lesson, as directed for Charts No. IV. and No. V. 

In a similar manner go through with all the lessons on 
this Chart ; after which, introduce the subject of Numbers 
again, with the following exercises : 

1. Count the words in each lesson, and set down their 
numbers. Then add these numbers, and tell the number 
of words in all the lessons. 

2. Count the letters in each lesson, and set down their 
numbers. Then add all these numbers, and tell the num- 
ber of letters in all the lessons. 

These exercises will require some instruction from the 
teacher in setting down larger numbers than the pupils 
have previously been accustomed to, and in carrying one 
for every ten. The first regular exercises in addition are 
thus introduced, and without any necessity for a separate 
Chart of Numbers. Moreover, the exercises in figures are 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 41 

thus made practical, as the figures are here the representa- 
tives of the numbers of well-known objects. We would 
recommend, in the exercises in numbers at this early stage 
of the pupil's progress, that figures should not be used ab- 
stractly, but be made to represent, in all cases, certain ob- 
jects with which the pupil is already familiar. 

The teacher may now introduce other exercises in num- 
bers, adapted to the capacities of his pupils. He may, for 
example, select such groups of words as " cat, cage ;" " cat, 
quail ;" " cat, yellow ;" " cat, reading," etc. Let the pupils 
count the letters of the words in each group, and tell the 
difference in the number between cat and cage, cat and 
quail, etc.; then the difference between the number of 
words in one line, and those in another line ; then the dif- 
ference between the number of letters in one line, and those 
in another line ; thence proceed to the words and letters in 
entire lessons ; thence to the words and letters on entire 
charts, etc. Such exercises will interest pupils much more 
than such as require them to deal with abstract numbers 
only. The idea of the difference between the number of 
letters in one word, and the number in another word, is 
first acquired by the pupil ; and then, when the want is 
felt, an expression for this idea is sought. This is. the true 
object method. 

Punctuation, Capitals, etc. — A more full account of the pauses, 
capitals, etc., may now be given, and their uses illustrated, as far as can 
be done, from the present Chart. Here are presented the comma, semi- 
colon, colon, period, interrogation and exclamation points, the rising and 
falling inflections, emphatic words, and the hyphen. The following may 
aid the teacher in explaining to the pupils the uses of these marks. For 
full information on this subject, however, we would advise him to read 
"A Treatise on English Punctuation, by John Wilson." 

The comma (,) marks the smallest grammatical division in written or 
printed language, and usually represents a short pause in reading or 
speaking. 

The semicolon (;) is used to separate such parts of a sentence as are 
somewhat less closely connected than those separated by a comma. It 
is also frequently placed between two or more distinct parts of a sen- 
tence, when these parts, or any of them, are divisible by commas into 
smaller portions. 

The colon (:) is used in a sentence between parts less connected than 
those which are divided by a semicolon, but not so independent as sep- 



42 MANUAL OF INFOKMATION" 

arate, distinct sentences. Thus : " It is not a cloak, nor a coat : it is a 
shawl." The following are good illustrations of the use both of the co- 
ion and of the semicolon. 

Avoid affectation ; for it is a contemptible weakness. 

Avoid affectation : it is a contemptible weakness. 

The omission of the conjunction for requires us to change the pause 
from a semicolon to a colon. 

The period (.), or full point, indicates the end of a complete and in- 
dependent sentence. It is also to be used after every abbreviated word, 
as Wm. for William, Mass. for Massachusetts. 

The interrogation point (?) is placed at the termination of every ques- 
tion. 

The exclamation point (!), indicating passion or emotion, is placed 
after expressions denoting any sudden or strong emotion. 

The hyphen (-) is used to join the constituent parts of certain com- 
pound and derivative words ; and also to divide words into syllables for 
the purpose of exhibiting their pronunciation. There are many com- 
pound words which were originally written with a hyphen, but which are 
now presented to the eye as one word, as bookseller, nobleman, etc. 



CHAET No. VII. ELEMENT AEY SOUNDS. 

[It is of considerable importance that the child should be exercised in the elementary 
sounds of our language; but these exercises should be introduced after the child has 
learned to call words with considerable facility ; and they should be continued in con- 
nection with, and as an adjunct of, his reading lessons, until both his ear and his voice 
have received the proper degree of training. See page 9, and also pages 35,38.] 

Chart No. VII. is designed to represent the principal ele- 
mentary sounds of our language, and to furnish exercises 
by which the ear may be trained to distinguish them in 
spoken language, and the organs of voice to utter them, 
when combined in words, with the propriety of good usage. 
Correct enunciation is the basis of all good reading; but 
this is equally removed from an affected nicety of articula- 
tion on the one hand, and a careless and slovenly manner 
on the other. Both extremes are to be avoided. 

In the following exercises in articulation, care should be 
taken to give the elementary sounds, when uttered sepa- 
rately, just that degree of force and prominence which 
they have when combined with others in the representa- 
tive words, when these words are uttered clearly and dis- 
tinctly in discourse. Elocutionists, in pronouncing the 
words separately, frequently prolong the elementary sounds 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 43 

— especially the Vowel sounds — far beyond what is appro- 
priate in good reading ; and this is apt to produce an un- 
natural and affected articulation in their pupils. Give the 
elements just that degree of prominence which they have 
when the words which contain them are uttered in a neatly 
spoken sentence. 

EXERCISES ON THE CHART. 

I. VOWELS OR VOCALS.* 

Long Sounds of the Vowels. 

1. Let the teacher, using a pointer, point separately, and 
in order, to the first word in the first column, the accom- 
panying vowel in the second column, and the word in the 
third column, while, at the same time, the pupils in concert 
pronounce each distinctly, thus, " mind, I, ice," giving to 
the vowel in the middle column the same sound that it has 
in each accompanying word. Pass over the three columns 
in this manner. 

2. Pass over the second and third columns, repeatedly, 
in the same manner, beginning with the vowel sound. 

3. The teacher points to the words ice, eat, ale, etc., and 
the pupils utter the corresponding elementary vowel sounds 
only, in this manner going through the entire list. The 
vowel sounds are so arranged as to correspond with the 
order of the changes in the position of the mouth in their 
formation, that when one sound is finished the mouth will 
be in the proper position for commencing the next sound. 

4. Combine each of the elementary long vowels with all 
the aspirates and sub-vocals, excepting Zh and JVg. Thus, 
the teacher tells the pupils to take P, and, connecting it 
with each long vowel, to pronounce the syllables thus 
formed, and then to utter the vowel sound separately. As 
the teacher points to the words ice, eat, ale, air, arm, etc., 
the pupil pronounces pi, I ; pe, e ; pa, a ; pa, a ; pa, a, etc. 

* "A vowel is a smooth emission of sounding breath, modified, but 
not obstructed by the organs of speech." — Graham. They produce what 
are called the /we tones. 



44 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

5. Next, in a similar manner, have the vowel sounds pre- 
cede the aspirates and consonants ; but select such aspirates 
and consonants only as are appropriate for this purpose. 
Thus, taking P, the pupil pronounces Ip (ipe) I ; ep (5pe) e, 
etc. 

Short Sounds of the Vowels. 

Next take up the short sounds of the vowels, and go 
through with them also, in five series of exercises, similar 
to those already given for the long sounds. 

Double Sounds. 

These may be treated in a similar manner. 

Additional Exercises. 

Now let the teacher exercise the pupils on the words given on Chart 
No. I., in a manner similar to the course just marked out. 

I. A. — Next let him require the pupils to write on the blackboard, or 
set up with the Type Letter-cards — 

1. All the words they can which give the sound of long a, as in ale, 
ape, bait, date, slate, gate, tame, flame, wave, save, whale, etc.* If they 
write them, let them make the appropriate mark over the vowel. If they 
set them up on the composing-frame, let them designate each series by 
a figure, as they are designated here : 1 for a, 2 for a, 3 for a, i or a, etc. 

2. Proceed in the same manner with those which give the sound of 
the Italian or grave a, as "arm, barn, farm, far, father, star, car, jarj 
harpy, hard, martyr. 

3. Those which give the sound of broad _ , as in all, call, fall, tall, 
sprawl, squall, haul, walk, talk, warm, swai-m. 

4. Those which give the sound of short a, as in at, fat, Tad, hat, sat, 
cat, sad, man, pan, tan, can, carry, began, natural. 

5. Those which give the sound of long a before r, as in air, care, fare, 
fair, bear, bare, pair, stair, stare, dare, compare, forbear, declare. 

6. Those which give the sound of a (intermediate between a and a), 
as in ask, last, fast, past, pass, grass, branch, chant, advance, lance, slan- 
der.f 

* The teacher, at least, should be supplied with a dictionary which 
gives the vowel sounds of all words in the language. It is unfortunate 
that all the dictionaries do not agree in giving the same signs to repre- 
sent the same sounds. We have adopted, here, the signs used in several 
of Webster's dictionaries, and especially the "Pronouncing and Defining 
Dictionary," edited by Prof. Goodrich. 

f With respect to this class of words there is much diversity among 
orthoepists, and also among good speakers, some giving to many of 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 45 

[Give words in which a has the sound of short 6 ; as in what, wash, 
swan, swamp, swap, swash, swallow, quality, was, wan, quadrangle, scal- 
lop, chaps. Do not confound them with the sound of a in sward, swarm, 
fall.]* 

II. E. — 7. Those which give the sound of long e, as in eat, me, beard, 
key, mete, seal, fear, keep, beet, beat, beef, leaf, proceed, precede, indeed, 
beneath. 

8. Those which give the sound of short 6, as in n6t, met, men, mer- 
ry, friend, sell, tell, b611, step, fret, bread, tread, head, keg, leg, tell, fell, 
guess, press. 

9. Those which give the sound of short e before r, as in her, earth, 
term, verge, verdure, prefer, confer, herd, fervid, fern, kersey, mercy, 
merchant. 

[Give words in which e has the sound of long a, as in there, their, 
where, heir. This is in accordance with both Webster's Pictorial Edi- 
tion and Worcester ; but perhaps the most common usage gives the e in 
these words the sound of a in care. In prey, survey, they, etc., the e 
has clearly the sound of long a..] 

III. I. — 10. Those which give the sound of long I, as in Ice, nice, pine, 
fine, nine, time, wine, Isle, pile, tile, night, plight, tight, height, oblige. 

11. Those which give the sound of short i, as in pin, tin, fin, since, 
wince, pit, sit, hit, fill, pill, mill, until, miss, hiss, mirror, bid, hid. 

[Give words in which i has the sound of long e, as in pique, machine, 
mien, marine, antique, unique, caprice, bombazine, ravine, routine, po- 
lice. 

Give words in which i has a short sound verging toward u, as in bird, 
firm, sir, fir, dirt, girt, virtue, virgin, bestir.] 

IV. O. — 12. Those which give the sound of long 6, as in old, told, 
mould, sold, note, denote, vote, oh, no, dome, loam, course, roll, port, 
ddor, floor, yeoman. 

13. Those which give the sound of short o, as in not, on, blot, bond, 
fond, pond, coral, fox, ox, hot, novel, shot, dun, odd, borrow, morrow, 
polish. 

14. Those which give the sound of 6 like long oo, as in move, pi - 6ve, 
disprove, do, to, tomb, lose, who. 

[Give words in which o has a sound like short ti, as in dove, love, son, 
done, worm, does, none, come, money. 

Give words in which o has the sound of u in bull. Ex. wolf, woman, 
Wolsey. 

Give words in which o has the sound of broad a in call. Ex. nor, for, 
form, sort, ought, fought.] 

V. U. — 15. Those which give the sound of long u, as in use, mute, 
cube, duty, unite, tube, tune, suit, fume, pure, hue, due, sue, lute, rule, 



them the Italian sound of a as in far and father, others giving them the 
short sound of a as in at, man, and others still, avoiding the two ex- 
tremes, giving it an intermediate sound, as we have represented it. 

* It may be well for the teacher to omit for the present the examples 
in brackets, until the pupils h*£ve become familiar with the sounds which 
are more strictly elementary. 



46 MANUAL OF INFOKMATTON 

rude, brute, true.* The long u has the sound of yu, slightly approaching 
yoo, when it begins a syllable ; but in other cases it is difficult to distin- 
guish the sound of the y. 

16. Those which give the sound of short u, as in sun, tip, but, tub, 
tun, hut, just, dust, fun, gun, cull, buzz, sting, thumb, vulgar, hurry, 
murmur, f 

17. Those which give the sound of obtuse u, as in pull, put, bull, full, 
bush, push, puss, could, would, should, sugar, butcher. 

VI. — 18. Those which have the sound of ou or oio, as in our, sour, 
bower, howl, owl, foul, found, hound, pound, sound, mound, noun. 

19. Those which have the sound of oy or oi, as in boy, toy, joy, annoy, 
destroy, convoy, oil, boil, toil, foil, soil, turmoil. 

[Give words in which ew has the sound of long u, as in few, mew, dew, 
pew, new, hew, ewe, slew, eschew.] 

The foregoing exercises carry the elementary vowel sounds sufficient- 
ly far for the uses of the school-room ; but it must not be supposed that 
they represent all the variations of sound given to each vowel. One vow- 
el sometimes takes the sound of another vowel. From Graham's Phonog- 
raphy we quote the following : 

"The letter a has eight different sounds, as in the following words — 
mate, many, pare, at, farm, pass, all, what. 

"The letter e has six different sounds, as in mete, pretty, they, met, 
her, there. 

' ' The letter i has five different sounds, as in machine, if, bird, bind, 
union. 

" The letter o has nine different sounds, as in woman, form, hop, ope, 
whole, son, move, women, one. 

"The letter u has seven different sounds, as fn busy, bury, cut, rule, 
usage, persuade, pull, unite." 

II. CONSONANTS. $ 

The Aspirates, or Whispered Consonants. 

1. Let the teacher exercise the pupils in sounding the 
Aspirates in the same manner as the first exercise was 

* Worcester says, "When u is preceded by r in the same syllable, it 
has the sound of oo in fool." Hence the words rule, rude, brute, true, he 
pronounces rool, rood, broot, troo. Although this pronunciation prevails 
in some quarters, we do not think it has yet become established by the 
usage of the majority of good speakers. It is well enough to recognize it, 
however, as some speakers are very tenacious of it. 

f Worcester makes a distinction between the u in hurry and the u in 
such words as fur, hurt, further, calling the former the short sound, and 
the latter the short and obtuse sound of u. We think the difference, if 
there is any, too slight to require the distinction. 

% A consonant is a sound made by an emission of breath, while at the 
same time there is either a complete or partial contact of the vocal or- 
gans, which obstruct the breath in some degree. None of the conso- 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 47 

given under the head of the " Long Sounds of the Vow- 
els." Thus, articulate " cap, p, pink," giving to %> its con- 
sonant sound only. 

P. To produce the separate sound of p, close the lips, and suddenly 
force them apart with the breath. Or gradually separate the sound of 
the syllable ap, and finally drop the sound denoted by a. Or attempt to 
pronounce the word pink, but go no farther than the sound of p. 

T. To produce the sound denoted by t, separate the sound of t from 
eat or tea. Or begin to pronounce tin, and stop with the sound of t. 

K. Separate the sound of k from ken or oak. Thus, ken, k-en, k — en, 

Ch. Separate the ch sound from latch. Or begin the pronunciation 
of chair, and stop with the ch sound. 

In this manner the separate aspirate sounds may be easily learned and 
uttered. 

2. Let the teacher now form for his pupils a series of ex- 
cises on the Aspirates similar to those given for the long 
sounds of the vowels. 

Sub-vocals. 

Let the teacher proceed with the Sub-vocals in the same 
manner as with the Aspirates. 

Composition. — Require those pupils who are old enough, 
to write compositions on the subjects in the foregoing ex- 
ercises on Chart No. VII. — telling what constitute voicels, 
some of the different sounds given to each, what are conso- 
nants can be fully pronounced without the help of a vowel ; but when 
we pronounce them as independently of a vowel as it is possible to do, 
we find that the sound of one portion of them will be that of a whisper, 
while the sound of the others will be given at the natural pitch of the 
voice, and will also contain more of a vocal articulation. 

Thus . notice the difference in sounding p and b. Closing the lips, 
and suddenly forcing them apart with the breath, gives the sound of p, 
and no sound is heard until the actual opening of the lips. But in sound- 
ing b an undertone or sort of murmur is made by the vocal ligaments 
before the opening of the lips. This difference has led to a division of 
the consonants into "Aspirates," or whispered consonants, and "Con- 
sonants" proper, or " Sub-vocals." 

Dr. Rush's classification of the elementary sounds is into twelve Tonic 
(vowel) Sounds, fourteen Sub-tonic (sub-vocal) Sounds, and nine Atonic 
(aspirate) Sounds. 



48 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

nants, how divided, character and use of the exercises on 
this Chart, etc. 



CHAET No. Yin. PHONIC SPELLING. 

The system of written phonics, or phonetics, consists in 
'giving only one distinct sign or representation to each ele- 
mentary sound in the language. There are said to be 
about forty-six elementary sounds in the English language, 
and these would consequently require an alphabet of forty- 
six letters. In such an alphabet any one letter would al- 
ways represent the same sound. 

With our present system of orthography it is impossible 
to tell, from the written or printed representation of a word, 
how the word should be pronounced, because frequently 
the same letter has, in different words, very different 
sounds, and the same sound is often represented by a great 
variety of combinations of letters. Thus the sound oilong 
a, is represented by no less than sixteen different signs. 
Thus, by a iu mating, a-e in mate, ai in pain, aigh in 
straight, ao in gaol, au in gauging, au-e in gauge, ay in 
pray, aye in prayed, ea in great, ei in veil, eig in reign, 
eigh in weigh, eighe in tceighed, ey in they, and eye in con- 
veyed.* 

In a similar manner, long e may be shown to have sev- 
enteen different signs, long I sixteen, etc. ; so that our lan- 
guage has not less than three hundred signs to represent 
about forty-six elementary sounds. On the other hand, to 
represent sixteen vowel sounds (as some give them), our 
language furnishes but five letters (a, e, i, o, u). As a far- 
ther instance of the anomalies in our language, the com- 
bination ough in the following couplet has seven different 
sounds : 

" Though the tough cough and hiccough plough me through, 
O'er life's dark lough my course I will pursue." 

It has still another sound in the word bought. How should 
* See Graham's Hand-book of Phonography, page 11. 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 49 

we know, therefore, how to pronounce the name of one of 
England's greatest statesmen, " Brougham ?" Thus it might 
be Bro-am, Bruf-fam, Brof-fam, Brup-pam, Brow-am, Broo- 
am, Brock-am, or Braw-am. 

Phonic Spelling, or spelling by sound, as represented on 
Chart No. VIII., consists in uttering separately the sounds 
(and not the letters), and then combining them in the pro- 
nunciation of the word. Its chief utility consists in making 
the ear thoroughly familiar with the elementary sounds of 
the language, and in producing a distinct and elegant artic- 
ulation. Chart No. VIII. is, therefore, merely an extended 
application of the principles illustrated in Chart No. VII. 

Exercises.— 1. Let the teacher, pointing to the word to, pronounce 
it, and then require the pupils to spell it by sound, and also pronounce it. 
Continue in this manner through all the vowel sounds represented on 
the Chart. 

2. Under the head of "Combinations of Consonant Sounds," pro- 
nounce, first, each element separately, and then the whole word. Thus, 
in the word black, there are four elements represented, ck forming but one! 

3. Next, pronounce the consonants in groups, as indicated by their 
grouping. The teacher may extend such exercises to any length by 
writing additional words on the blackboard, for the use of the pupils. 

Phonetic Analysis.— This is the opposite of phonic 
spelling, or synthesis, and consists in dividing words into 
their vocal elements. It directs the attention, especially, 
to those letters and combinations that have the same sound, 
and also to slight differences of sound, and is, therefore, a 
useful exercise in cultivating the ear to nice discrimina- 
tion. Here the student, in making the analysis, can not 
be guided at all by the common orthography, but by the 
sound only. 

The teacher may pronounce such words as aid, ail, air, 
ought, eyed, owed, food, edge, George, John, right, know, 
faint, all, claws, meed, caught, sight, condemn, tongue, 
rowed, etc., and require the pupils to give their spoken 
elements. Thus, ought has only two sounds ; though only 
two, etc. The teacher may write such on the board, or 
give them out by dictation.* 

* An objection to the system of written phonetics seems to be, that it 
furnishes no means of distinguishing between words of different orthog- 



50 MANUAL OF INFOKMATION 

Where pupils have been taught the phonetic alphabet, 
they may write the words in the phonetic letters. 

Composition. — Let pupils write compositions on this 
subject of Phonetics ; telling what it is ; the advantages in 
favor of having a phonetic alphabet ; the objections that 
may be urged against it, etc. 



CHAET No. IX. WRITING. 

Only a few specific directions need be given for the use 
of this Chart. Writing has been referred to in connection 
with the exercises on Charts Nos. IV., V., and VI. ; and it 
is supposed that during these exercises the pupils will learn 
the use of the script letters. They should begin their use 
in the following manner : 

Having learned to recognize the words on Chart No. I., 
and to print their letters, they should next, in the same 
manner, learn to recognize them in their script forms, and 
to make their script letters. Thus, let them begin with the 
word cap on the "Writing Chart. They need not begin 
with the elementary straight and curved lines of the let- 
ters, but may make the entire letters, in which they will 
necessarily use all these elements. The sixteen words 
given on the upper part of the Chart contain all the let- 
ters of the alphabet. The use of the capitals will be grad- 
ually learned in the same manner as the use of the printed 
Roman capitals. 

Pupils may practice writing the sixteen script words on 
their slates, or on the blackboard, having the Chart before 
them. They may next write them, beginning each with a 
capital letter. Sentences may also be given them to write, 
having the Chart before them as a guide. One pupil may 
also set up sentences on the composing-frame with the Type 

raphy and different meaning, that are pronounced alike. Thus, Wright, 
rite, right, write, are written alike in phonetics. However, it may be re- 
plied, we must distinguish between them by the context, just as we are 
compelled to do when they are spoken. 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 51 

Letter-cards, and others may write them on the blackboard, 
on their slates, or on paper. 

The teacher should be very particular to have the pupils 
make the letters as neatly and as accurately as possible, 
from the very beginning, and not allow them to form care- 
less habits of writing.* If they write with either a lead 
pencil or a slate pencil, they should have it long and sharp- 
pointed, and should be required to hold it as they would 
hold a pen. At the proper time pupils may be supplied 
with writing-books. 

Writing-masters usually direct their pupils to sit with the 
" left side to the desk." This is a constrained and unnat- 
ural position, and soon becomes wearisome ; the pupil then 
seeks relief by inclining his body forward, thereby con- 
tracting the lungs, and producing weakness of the chest, 
the forerunner of consumption. Several physiologists have 
very justly taken exceptions to such a position, as in viola- 
tion of well-known physiological rules. 

The most natural and easy position seems to be at a level 
and rather high table — the right side to the table, and the 
paper square with the table. This is the natural position 
usually taken by lawyers, copyists, etc., who have much 
writing to do. If an inclined desk be used, we would ad- 
vise a position with the right side partially to the desk, s£ 
that the elbow of the right arm may rest on the desk. In 
any case, the back should be supported, and the body 
should be kept erect. 



CHAET No. X. DBA WING-. 

PART I. FIRST LESSONS IN DRAWING. 

Some teachers begin their lessons in drawing with the 
formation of straight lines, vertical, horizontal, oblique, and 

* We have represented the letter w in two forms : one in the word 
owl, and the other as seen in the alphabet. We prefer the latter. We 
have given on the Chart the " Spencerian" form of the letters. If the 
teacher should prefer any other forms, there is no objection to his using 
them, if he can make them verv ncatlv. 



52 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

angular, and these they follow with exercises in forming 
curved lines. Chart No. XI. will furnish an abundant vari- 
ety of such lessons, if teachers think best to follow this sys- 
tem. 

Others very justly object to this mode of teaching draw- 
ing as unnatural and devoid of interest to the pupil, and 
prefer to begin simultaneously with both kinds of lines, as 
they are found combined in the outlines of the forms of real 
objects, as we have represented them in the upper part of 
Chart No. X. It is not often that we are required in draw- 
ing to make a continuous straight or curved line with one 
stroke of the pencil, and hence there is little reason for 
practicing upon such lines. 

If the picture of a cap like that on Chart No. I. be given 
a child for a drawing lesson, the child, if it has had no pre- 
vious instruction in drawing, will be very apt to begin with 
making heavy black marks for the outline, and these marks 
will be very certain to be wrong. They are then so heavy 
that they can not be corrected, and the child has to begin a 
new drawing. This will, perhaps, be equally faulty, and 
another drawing will be begun ; and so on until half a doz- 
en or more attempts have been made, and the child be- 
comes discouraged. 

m The child should be taught to begin with making the 
faintest outline possible of some important part of the pic- 
ture : it should then examine this outline carefully, and, 
without rubbing out any thing, correct it by a new light 
tracing. Let it continue thus until the outlines of the 
whole picture are satisfactory. The correct tracings may 
then be made a little firmer, like the outlines of the cap as 
given on this Chart. It will then be easy to fill up with 
lines of shading, as they are seen in the picture of the same 
cap on Chart No. I. These pencil lines of shading, howev- 
er, should be made much lighter than they are in the en- 
graved and printed picture. Children are inclined to go 
to the extreme of making a picture as black as possible. 
They should be encouraged to make all their drawings 
light, even when they are fully shaded ; and they should 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 53 

be shown that the most striking parts of a picture are usu- 
ally those which are left almost or wholly xohite. 

After the pupil has drawn an outline of the cap, as in 
Chart No. X., and shaded it, as in Chart No. I., he should 
be required to make a drawing, in the same order, of a 
real cap. 

After this introduction of the subject, we would advise 
that pupils should be required to make drawings from Chart 
No. XIX. of the forms of leaves, stems, roots, and flowers 
represented there, being careful to sketch the outlines very 
lightly at first ; and that after each drawing — if it be of a 
leaf, for example — a similar real leaf should be placed be- 
fore them as a copy, that they may thus be continually chaw- 
ing from Nature. 

They may next return to Chart No. X., and copy, in or- 
der, the outlines of objects there represented. After mak- 
ing one of these outlines, as directed with reference to that 
of the cap, and then shading it as shown elsewhere in the 
completed picture, the object itself, or some other familiar 
object, and a similar one if possible, should be placed be- 
fore them to copy. In all cases the picture should be used 
merely to teach the children how to draw similar natural 
objects* 

The complete picture of the pear, jug, and face will be 
found on Chart No. I. ; that of the fish in the Fifth Read- 
er, page 227 ; but that on Chart No. I. may be drawn as 
well. The completed picture of the cat may be found on 
Chart No. VI. ; that of the boy reading on Chart No. V. ; 
domestic fowls on Chart No. XVII. ; and the horse, etc., on 
Chart No. XV. In drawing a picture of the human face, 

* Drawing, as usually taught in our schools, is little more than copy- 
ing pictures — a very profitless exercise, except as it does cultivate a taste 
for pictures or paintings generally ; hut it fails in cultivating a taste for 
Nature ; and its utility is the very doubtful one of copying a copy, instead 
of copying the originals. Drawing and painting lessons should have di- 
rect and constant reference to drawing and painting from Nature ; and 
if the system we have here so briefly sketched be tenaciously adhered to, 
the desired results will not be difficult of attainment. 



54 MANUAL OF INFOKMATION 1 

the eye should be first drawn, as, if that should be wrong, 
all the rest would be spoiled. 

The teacher will find on the Charts, and throughout the 
School and Family Readers, a great variety of pictures, 
from which he may select copies for his pupils; and he 
should be careful to select, in the early lessons, such as they 
are most familiar with, and of which they can find repre- 
sentatives in real objects in Nature to copy from. Let 
them copy from the upper part of Chart No. XX. the parts 
of flowers as there represented, and then find similar parts 
to copy from in the natural flowers. Let them copy, from 
Chart No. XXI. the forms of the roots of well-known 
plants, and let them bring in drawings of similar roots 
from Nature. Be careful to have them begin each picture 
by sketching the outlines very lightly ; and do not let them 
shade any of them too heavily. Accustom them to copy 
much from Nature. Let them make drawings of books, 
tables., chairs, and desks, and of old fences, the stumps of 
trees, rocks, etc. They should not attempt buildings until 
they have learned something of Perspective. 

PART II. GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. 

Children delight to exercise their constructive powers in 
making things : the girls, in cutting out patterns and mak- 
ing dresses ; the boys, in using the hammer and nails, the 
gimlet, the hatchet, the saw, the plane, the rule and com- 
passes, in planning and constructing toys and machines, and 
in making diagrams of geometrical figures. What their 
elders and superiors do, children not only desire to know 
how to do, but they wish to do it also : labor — work — is 
with them an instinct of their very being, fraught with 
health and happiness ; and if, throughout childhood and 
youth, they could have suitable training, by way of recrea- 
tion and amusement, in the principles and practice of con- 
struction, they would not make the inefficient men and 
women that we now class among the drones of society. 
The strong propensity, especially in boys, for using "tools," 
and " making" things, should not, therefore, be checked, but 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 55 

judiciously guided and trained as a part of the business of 
their education. It will thus lead, naturally, and without 
impediment to any thing else useful, to those attainments 
in knowledge, and that skill in art, that combine to make 
the scientific and practical farmer, the master mechanic, or 
the engineer. Our educators should look more to this 
hitherto almost wholly neglected part of education.* 

Carrying out the above principles in part, under the head 
of Geometrical Drawing, on the Chart, we have intro- 
duced some interesting and useful problems in lines and 
forms, for practice in the school-room. While these exer- 
cises are calculated to train the eye and the hand to accu- 
racy and neatness in drawing, they will also cultivate the 
inventive faculties, and give children the gratification of 
knowing how easily some apparently difficult things are 
done ; such things, also, as will be apt to come up for use 
in many ways in their future studies, and in practical life. 
It should not be deemed sufficient for children to tell how 
these figures are drawn. They should draw them ; and for 
this purpose they should be provided with a ruler, also 
with a pair of dividers or brass compasses, to one leg of 
which a short lead pencil, shaved flat on one side, may be 
firmly tied, for drawing the circles. 

We would also further remind the teacher that the pu- 
pil should not be expected, at this early stage, to proceed 
to the demonstrations of these problems. After the pupil 
has solved the first problem, he should be left for a while to 
his own ingenuity in solving each subsequent one. After 
he has learned to bisect a given straight line, he has the 
key to the next three problems ; and if, unaided, he can 
accomplish their solution, the knowledge thus acquired 
will be wholly his own, and will be prized accordingly, and 
the great value of systematic contrivances will begin to be 

* Manual Labor Schools have not been eminently successful in an ed- 
ucational point of view, because the labor required has not been planned 
with reference to educating the faculties, but only with reference to ma- 
terial profits in dollars and cents. Hence the labor has often been, in 
an educational aspect, an injury rather than a benefit. 



56 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

appreciated. Let this process of self-instruction be carried 
out extensively, but not so far as to check the ardor and 
dampen the curiosity of the pupil. Moreover, as the pupil 
progresses from one step to another, let the teacher bring 
in all the illustrations possible, showing the relationship 
between these problems and constructive art, and especial- 
ly in the construction of tools and machines with which the 
pupil is familiar. 

Fig. 1, — To bisect a given straight line; that is, to di- 
vide it into tioo equal parts. 

Let AB be the given straight line. From the centre 
A, with a radius* greater than the half of AB, describe two 
arcs* of a circle, as at C and D ; and from B, with the same 
radius, describe the two arcs of another similar circle, in- 
tersecting the first at C and D. The straight lines con- 
necting the points of intersection will bisect AB in O. 
(The line COD will also be perpendicular to the line AB.) 

Fig. 2. — From a given point in a straight line, to draw 
a perpendicular^ to this line. 

Let EF be the given line, and O the given point in it. 
In the straight line EF take any point, E, and make OE 
equal to OF. From E, with a radius greater than EO, de- 
scribe an arc above O ; and from F, with the same radius, 
describe another arc intersecting the first at G. Draw GO, 
and this line will be perpendicular to EF. 

[Explain what is meant by a perpendicular, and also show that a per- 
pendicular line may be in a horizontal, or in any other position. What 
lines in the school-room are perpendicular to certain other lines? The 
explanation of a perpendicular will show that each of the angles EOG 
and GOF, in Fig. 2, is a right angle. Give pupils a straight line, and 
ask them to form a right angle at a given point in it ; then two right 
angles on each side of the line. Describe the form of the wooden level 
and plummet which masons and carpenters often use for determining 
whether a wall or a beam is level or not. Ask them how they would 
make this level. Could an iron square, such as carpenters use, be made 
without knowing how to draw one line perpendicular to another ? How 
would they make a wooden square, to answer the purposes of the iron 
square ?] 

* Describe what is meant by a radius, and what by an arc. See page 
80, and Chart No. XI. 

t Describe what is meant by perpendicular. See page 80, and Chart 
No. XI. 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 57 

After having drawn Fig. 2, see if the pupil, unaided, can 
draw an equilateral triangle* It is done by describing the 
arcs which intersect at C, with a radius equal to EF, or FE, 
and then connecting the three points E, C, and F. See, 
also, if the pupil can describe, on a given line, an isosceles 
triangle, each of whose equal sides shall be double of the 
base. Next describe a similar triangle on the other side of 
the line. 

Fig. 3. — From a given 'point without a straight line, to 
draw a perpendicular to this line. 

Let HI be a straight line of unlimited length, and O the 
given point without it. From O, with a radius greater 
than the nearest distance to the straight line, describe an 
arc cutting the line in two points, H and I. Then from the 
points H and I, as centres, and with radiif greater than the 
half of IH, describe two arcs cutting each other in the point 
J. Draw OK in the exact direction of the point J, and OK 
will be perpendicular to HI. [HK and IK will also, evi- 
dently, be perpendicular to OK at the point K.] 

Fig. 4. — To draw a square on a given straight line. 

Let BA be the given straight line. First, from the point 
A, draw AG perpendicular to BA, and take AE equal to 
AB by measuring. Then, from the point E in the line 
EA, draw EH perpendicular to AE, and make EH equal 
to AB. Draw HB in a similar manner, and the square 
will be completed. 

In order to draw AG perpendicular to BA, extend BA 
in the direction ofD; take any distance, such as AC, and 
make AC and AD equal. Then from the centres C and 
D, with equal radii greater than CA, draw the two arcs in- 
tersecting at G. Draw a line from G to A, and this line 
will be perj:>endicular to BA. The point G might have 
been taken below E. In a similar manner EH is drawn 
from the point E perpendicular to AE. 

Fig. 5. — To find the centre of a given circle or arc. 

Let JKLM be the given circle, or JKL the given arc 

* A triangle having three equal sides, 
t Explain that radii is the plural of radius. 
C 2 



58 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

Take any three points in the arc, or any three in the circle, 
as J, K, L ; join JK and KL ; bisect each by the perpendic- 
ular lines UT and RS, and their point of intersection, O, 
will be the centre of the given circle or the given arc. JK 
and KL are bisected by perpendiculars, similar to Fig. 1. 

Now give the pupils this problem : To describe the cir- 
cumference of a circle through any three given points. 

Fig. 6. — To divide a given angle, or a given arc, into 
two equal parts. (That is, to bisect them.) 

Let ACB be the given angle. From the centre C, with 
any radius, describe an arc AB. Draw the straight line 
(the chord*) AB. Bisect AB by the perpendicular CE, 
and the angle ACB will be divided into two equal parts. 

If AB be the given arc, draw the straight line (or chord) 
AB, bisect it by the perpendicular EC, and this will bisect 
the arc. 

Fig. 7. — To inscribe a circle in a given triangle. 

Let GHF be the given triangle. Bisect H and F, any 
two angles of the triangle, by the lines HN" and FM. Their 
point of intersection at O will be the centre of the required 
circle. Then from the centre O, with a radius equal to the 
nearest distance of any one of the sides of the triangle, de- 
scribe a circle, and its circumference will also touch the 
other sides of the triangle. 

Figi 8. — To describe a circle about a given triangle. 

Let ABC be the given triangle. Bisect AB and AC, 
any two of the sides of the triangle, by the perpendiculars 
GF and HI. Their point of intersection at O will be the 
centre of the required circle. From this centre, with a ra- 
dius equal to the distance of any one of the angles of the 
triangle, describe a circle, and its circumference will also 
pass through the other angles. 

Fig. 9. — Five problems. 

1. To inscribe a square in a given circle. 

If you do not know the centre of the circle, find it, as de- 
scribed under Fig. 5. Through the centre, O, draw the di- 
ameter KL. Through O draw MN perpendicular to KL. 
* For the definition of a chord, see page 80, and Chart No. XI. 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 59 

Connect the points M, L, N, and K, and the square will be 
formed. 

2. To describe a square about a given circle. 

Draw, as just described, two diameters of the circle, 
KL and MN, at right angles to each other. Draw per- 
pendiculars at the extremities of these diameters, and the 
square will be formed. 

3. To inscribe a circle in a given square. 

Take the outer square PRTS, connect the opposite an- 
gles, and from their point of intersection inscribe a circle 
with a radius equal to the nearest distance to any one side 
of the square ; or bisect any two adjacent sides of the 
square by perpendiculars, and their intersection will give 
the centre of the circle, and the length of the radius for in- 
scribing the circle. 

4. To describe a circle about a given square. 

Let KMLN be the given square. Connect the angles 
of the square by the two diameters MN and KL, and from 
their intersection at O describe a circle with a radius equal 
to either of the semi-diameters, OM or OL, etc. 

5. To inscribe a regular octagon in a circle. 

In the circle inscribe the square KMLN ; bisect the arc 
cut off by each of its sides, which will give the points U, 
V, etc. Connect KIT, UN, NV, VL, etc., and a regular 
octagon will be inscribed in the circle. 

A continued subdivision of the arcs thus obtained would 
give figures of 16 sides, 32 sides, 64 sides, etc. 

Fig. 10. — To inscribe a regular hexagon in a given 
circle. 

From the centre of the circle, A, draw the radius AB. 
Apply the radius AB six times to the circumference, and 
the hexagon will be formed, as shown in the figure. 

Now ask the pupils how they would form a regular poly- 
gon of 12 sides. 

Ask them how they would draw six equilateral triangles 
in a circle. If they were required to draw one equilateral 
triangle, having a side of it equal to a given straight line, 
how would they do it? (Describe a circle whose radius 



60 MANUAL OF INFOEMATION 

should be the given straight line; then describe another 
circle, with the same radius, having its circumference pass 
through the centre of the first circle, and it will be readily 
seen how the triangle can be formed.) A knowledge of 
the construction of the hexagon will enable pupils, after a 
very little study, to construct the diagram of the Chromatic 
Scale of Colors, Chart No. XIV. 

Fig. 11. — To inscribe a regular pentagon in a given 
circle. 

The centre of the circle being found, draw the radius HI, 
and from the point H draw HL at right angles to it. Bi- 
sect HL in J ; connect JI ; then make JK equal JI. Now 
apply HK to the circumference of the circle, beginning at 
L, and it will be found to exactly measure the circumfer- 
ence ten times. Connect the alternate points obtained by 
this measurement, as shown in the figure, and a regular 
pentagon will be formed. 

How, then, could a regular decagon be formed ? A reg- 
ular polygon of 20 sides ? 

Now suggest to the pupils the following problem : 

To construct an adjoining pentagon on each of the 
Jive sides of the pentagon. Fig. 11, and each equal to 
Fig. 11. 

This may be easily done in the following manner : Take 
a side of the pentagon, say 5 7, and bisect it by a perpen- 
dicular, such as HK extended outwardly. Then, on this 
perpendicular as a diameter, describe a circle that shall 
cut the circle of Fig. 11 in the points 5 and 1. Then 5 7 
will be one of the sides of the adjoining pentagon, and the 
other sides may be easily laid off around the circle. In a 
similar manner construct each of the adjoining five penta- 
gons. 

The knowledge of this construction is essential to the 
forming of the solid called the dodecahedron. See page 62. 

Let them also exercise their ingenuity upon the follow- 
ing problem : Describe three equal circles touching one an- 
other; and also describe another circle which shall touch 
them all three. 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 61 

Fig. 12. — To describe an ellipse. 

As an ellipse is a figure that in form approaches a circle 
on the one hand, and is contracted to almost a straight line 
on the other, we have drawn three of them. 

1. To draw the inner ellipse. 

Suppose it be required to draw this ellipse on a smooth 
board. 

Take any two points, A and D, and into each point drive 
a pin ; tie a string, AD, to these pins, one end to each pin, 
and leave the string sufficiently loose to reach to T ; then 
putting a pencil-point inside the string, and fully stretching 
out the string, move the pencil-point around against the 
string, and it will form on the board the inner ellipse. 

The points A and D are called the foci of the ellipse. 

2. If C be taken as one of the foci, while the other re- 
mains at A, the same length of string will give the form 
of the second ellipse. 

3. If B be taken as one of the foci, while the other re- 
mains at A, the same length of string will give the form 
of the outer ellipse. 

If the two foci should be brought much nearer to each 
other, with the same length of string, the ellipse would ap- 
proach closely, in form, to a circle. The farther apart the 
foci are, the more will the ellipse be contracted in width. 

How would the pupil draw a large circle in the garden 
— so large that he could not use a pair of compasses, or di- 
viders ? 

He might use a narrow strip of board, with a peg at 
each end, driving one of the pegs firmly into the ground, 
and using the other peg to mark with. Or he might use a 
rope, with a peg at each end. 

How would he draw a large ellipse in the garden ? 

Additional Exercises. 

To construct the Jive regular polyhedrons. 
There are five solids, in each of which the faces are all 
equal polygons, and the solid angles of which are equal. 
By knowing how to draw an equilateral triangle, the 



62 



MANUAL OF INFORMATION 



square, and the pentagon, as already described, each of 
these solids may easily be made of pasteboard. 

Having drawn the figures as we have given them, on 
pasteboard, and cut them out accurately through their 
boundary lines, cut the other lines half through the paste- 
board, turn up the parts and glue them together, and the 
forms of the solids will be obtained. 

1. The Tetrahedron, or equilateral pyramid, is a solid 
bounded by four equal and equilateral triangles. 





2. The Hexahedron, or cube, is a solid bounded by six 
equal squares. 





3. An Octahedron is a solid bounded by eight similar 
triangular faces. The triangles may be either isosceles or 
equilateral. The latter give what is called a regular octa- 
hedron. 





4. A regular Dodecahedron is a solid bounded by twelve 
equal pentagons. 





FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 63 

5. A regular Icosahedron is a solid bounded by twenty 
equilateral triangles. 





Let the pupil construct, out of pasteboard, a pentagonal 
prism • that is, a prism having a pentagon for each end, 
and equal parallelograms for the five sides. 

PART III. LINEAR, PERSPECTIVE.* 

I. We early learn by observation that if two similar ob- 
jects of the same size be placed at unequal distances from 
us, and in similar positions, the more distant object will 
appear to the eye the smaller of the two. Thus, if one post 
six feet high be placed fifty feet from the eye, and another 
post of the same height be placed one hundred feet from 
the eye, the more distant post will appear to the eye — the 
eye alone being judge — to be much shorter than the near- 
er post ; and if we make a drawing of them in a picture, 
we must represent them, as nearly as possible, just as they 
appear. So of all objects that may be seen at one view : 
their appearance varies according to form, position, color, 
and distance ; and perspective drawing, when combined 
with painting, is the art of so representing objects on a 
plane surface that the drawing or painting shall present to 
the eye the same appearance as is presented by the objects 
themselves.^ 

* Perspective is treated of by writers under the two heads, Linear 
Perspective and Aerial Perspective, The former regards only the posi- 
tions, magnitudes, and forms of the objects delineated ; the latter treats 
of the variations in the degrees of light, color, and shade of objects, as 
affected by their greater or less distance from the spectator. The soft- 
ening of objects in the distance, and their boldness of outline and color- 
ing in the foreground, belong, therefore, to atrial perspective. In this 
article we treat of linear perspective only. 

f To speak with strict accuracy, however, no picture can produce on 



64 MANUAL OF INFOKHATION 

x The plane surface, whether it be paper or any other sub- 
stance, on which we make a drawing, is called the Per- 
spective Plane ; and it is supposed to be generally placed 
upright, or in a vertical position, between the eye and the 
objects represented on it.* A plate of glass, through which 
we should look at the objects, would very appropriately 
represent the perspective plane. 

. Perspective drawing is highly useful to enable us to give 
faithful representations of objects wherever photography 
can not be employed ; and it will always be useful to archi- 
tects and engineers, by enabling them to make correct 
drawings of intended buildings or machines. 

II. In order to give pupils some clear ideas of linear per- 
spective, endeavor to impress them with the truth that an 
object appears smaller the farther it is removed from the 
eye. Therefore, of two upright posts of the same height, 
the one that is farthest removed from the eye will appear 
the shortest. Now suppose a pupil stood in a position to 
see one side and one end of a large building. It could then 
see the position and length of three of the corner posts of 
the building, all of which are of the same height. Suppose 
the nearer corner post to be fifty feet from the eye, the cor- 
ner on the left to be eighty feet distant, and the corner on 
the right to be one hundred feet distant. How would they 
respectively appear- to the eye ? Which would appear to 
be the longest ? Which the next in length ? Which the 
shortest ? How, then, must they be represented in an ac- 
curate drawing? 

Now call their attention to two drawings of the same 

the eye exactly the same effect which the object itself produces, because 
the former being near, and the latter distant, the adjustment of the eye 
to distant vision is not the same in both cases. 

* To speak more accurately, however, it is supposed to be so placed 
that the line from the eye to the centre of the objects shall be perpendic- 
ular to the perspective plane. If, therefore, the objects of which we 
make a drawing are directly above us, so that we look upward at them, 
the perspective plane will be in a horizontal position. But as most ob- 
jects of which drawings are made are on the level of the eye, the per- 
spective plane on which they are drawn must be in a vertical position. 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 65 

building on the Chart, Fig. 1 and Fig. 2. In Fig. 2 all lines 
of equal length in Nature are represented of equal length 
in the drawing, without regard to the effects produced by 
differences of distance. Thus the three corner posts, which 
are of equal length in the real building, are made of the same 
length in the drawing. So the more distant rafter on the 
right is made of the same length as the nearer one, and the 
ridge of the building is made of the same length as the plate 
at the eaves. Now call their attention to another drawing 
of the same building, at Fig. 1, in which lines that are 
equal in Nature are made, unequal in the drawing, being 
graduated according to the differences of distance. Thus 
the nearer corner post, 12, is made longer than the more 
distant posts, 3 4 and 5 6. Ask them which building ap- 
pears the most natural. It will probably be found that Na- 
ture has already taught them to recognize the forms in 
which she appears to them, and that they will give their 
approval to Fig. 1. 

Let them look at Fig. 1, and observe that all lines that 
are parallel in the real building tend toward the same point 
— that is, that they are not made parallel in the drawing, 
but converge in some one direction. Thus, if the several 
parallel horizontal lines on the end of the building were ex- 
tended to the left, they would all meet at the point A ; 
and if those on the side, and the one on the ridge, and the 
one at the top of the chimney, etc., were extended to the 
right, they would meet at the point B. A and B are called 
Vanishing Points, because certain lines vanish or term- 
inate at these points. 

Ask the pupils if they were standing on the floor of one 
end of a long gallery, and looking down the length of it, at 
which end of the gallery would the floor appear the nar- 
rowest and the gallery the narrowest. If the horizontal 
and parallel lines on the sides of the floor were to be rep- 
resented in a drawing, therefore, they must have a vanis7i- 
ing point. 

If the pupils were standing on a rail-road track, how 
would the parallel rails appear at a distance ? The track 



66 MANUAL OF INFORMATION" 

would seem to grow narrow in the distance, and should be 
so represented in a drawing ; and the lines representing 
the rails should be drawn toward some vanishing point. 
So in Fig. 8, the numerous parallel lines in the marbled 
floor are seen to converge in the distance — all of them be- 
ing directed toward the point C. 

A Vanishing Point, therefore, is that point in space to- 
ward which any two or more parallel lines seem to con- 
verge. It is important to remember that all parallel lines 
have the same vanishing point. 

III. We see objects by the rays of light which come from 
them in straight lines to the eye.* If we look through a 
pane of glass at a building in the distance, ana then mark 
on the glass the points through which the rays of light pass 
in coming from all the corners and angles of the building 
to the eye, and then connect these points properly by lines, 
we shall have an accurate outline drawing of the building, 
just as it appears to the eye at the particular point from 
which it is viewed. If we change the position of the point 
of view, or point of sight, the object will be changed in 
appearance ; so that a drawing of an object from any one 
point of sight must differ from a drawing made from any 
other point. 

[Place a book, or other object, on the table, and let pupils view it from 
different positions, and tell the changes of appearance caused thereby. 

Let them view the school building, or some other building, from dif- 
ferent localities (points of sight), and tell what parts of the building would 
be shown in the drawings made from different points. 

Suppose they were making a drawing of a landscape which contained 
a lake. If the lake were above the level of the eye, would they represent 
the water in the drawing? When, only, could they represent a lake, 
river, etc., in a drawing?] 

The Point of Sight, when used with reference to a 
drawing, or picture, is the point from which the eye is 
supposed to view the objects represented. If a line be 
drawn from the point of sight perpendicular to the per- 
spective plane, the point at which this line intersects the 

* In straight lines, except as they are deflected by the different media 
through which they pass. 



FOR OBJECT LESSON'S. 67 

perspective plane is called the Centre of the Picture. 
It will also intersect this plane, if the latter be in a vertical 
position, at the exact height of the eye. A line drawn hori- 
zontally through the centre of the picture is called the 
Horizontal Line ; and all lines that are horizontal in na- 
ture have their vanishing points in this line. 

IV. We are now prepared, with this preliminary knowl- 
edge of what is meant by the Perspective Plane, a Van- 
ishing Point, the Point of Sight, the Centre of the 
Picture, and the Horizontal Line, to proceed to a prac- 
tical illustration of all of them in one drawing, Fig. 3. 

Suppose the colored parallelogram abdc to represent the 
ground plan, or base, of a building 25 feet wide and 50 feet 
long. Suppose the eye, that is looking at the building, to 
be placed at E, 50 feet from the nearest corner, and on a 
level with the base of the building. E is therefore the 
Point of Sight. Suppose a transparent plate of glass to 
be placed upright, in a vertical position, between the eye 
and the building, and in the direction of the line AB, and 
that it is designed to make a drawing of the building on 
this plate of glass. This plate of glass, then, represents the 
Perspective Plane. Draw a horizontal line, EB, parallel 
to the side of the building cd ; and another horizontal line, 
EA, parallel to the end of the building ca. 

Now it is evident that, in looking from E at acd, the 
three visible lower corners of the building, these corners 
will be seen, respectively, on the perspective plane, at the 
points 5, 4, and 7 ; for these are the points at which the 
rays of light from the three corners pierce the perspective 
plane in coming to the eye. If now we draw a line from E 
perpendicular to the perspective plane, to the point C, this 
latter point will be the Centre of the Picture ; that is, 
it will be the point of most direct vision, where objects 
will be the most distinctly seen in a general view that 
takes in the whole picture. 

If we could look through the vertical plate of glass — the 
perspective plane — and see the top of the corner post 
which stands at c, we could mark on the glass the appar- 



68 MANUAL OF INFOEMATION 

ent height of this post. We will represent this height by 
the line 4 2. Now draw a line from 2 to B, and another 
from 2 to A ; the other two visible posts of the building 
must be found, in the drawing, the one in the line 2B, and 
the other in the line 2A, as we have represented them at 6 
and 3. The three posts will also be represented of their 
apparent relative height ; the nearest by 2 4, the next in 
distance by 3 5, and the most distant by 6 7. 

Now let the pupils tell why the corner 2 4 must be made 
higher than either of the other corners 6 7 or 3 5. Remem- 
ber that E represents the place of the eye; and that the 
nearest corner of the building is supposed to staud at c, 
and the other two visible corners at d and a. Which of 
the three is the most distant from the eye ? Why must 
the line 4 7, which represents one of the sills of the build- 
ing, and 2 6, which represents one of the plates, and 1 8, 
which represents the ridge-pole, all tend in the direction 
of B ? Because they are parallel in the real building ; and 
all parallel lines have the same vanishing point. 

But here it may be asked, how do we find the vanishing 
point of any given line ; that is, how do we know in what 
direction to draw it ? The unvarying rule is this : Draw 
a line from the point of sight (the eye) parallel to the 
given line, and where this drawn line pierces the perspec- 
tive plane, there will be the vanishing point of the given 
line. Thus, in Fig. 3, having placed the perspective plane 
in a vertical position, and in the direction of the line AB, 
suppose we wish to find the vanishing point of the line ca. 
From the point of sight E we draw the line EA parallel 
to ca, and as the line thus drawn pierces the perspective 
plane at A, therefore A is the vanishing point of the line ca. 
It must also, necessarily, be the vanishing point of all lines 
that are parallel to ca. Therefore, not only 4 5 (which rep- 
resents ca), but also 2 3, must tend toward the point A. 
Upon the same principles B is the vanishing point of cd, 
and also of all lines that are parallel to cd. Following out 
the same rule, N is found to be the vanishing point of the 
lines represented by 2 1 and 6 8. 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 69 

It will also be seen that the nearer the eye is to the 
building which is to be drawn, the closer together will be 
the vanishing points AB, and, consequently, the more ab- 
ruptly will such lines as 2 3 and .2 6 incline to their vanish- 
ing points. On the other hand, the farther the eye is re- 
moved, the farther apart will the vanishing points be re- 
moved also, and .the less suddenly will the parallel lines 
converge toward them. 

Now accustom the pupils to look at various lines in real 
buildings, and, on the supposition that they are to make 
drawings of these lines on a transparent plane placed up- 
right between themselves and the objects, let them point 
out the vanishing points toward which the several lines 
would tend. They can do this by placing one end of a 
ruler or straight stick at the eye, and then holding it so 
that it shall be parallel to the given line. It will then be 
directed toward a point on the supposed perspective plane 
which will be the vanishing point of the given line, if said 
line is to be represented by a drawing on the perspective 
plane. Let the pupils notice, also, the different effects pro- 
duced on the apparent direction of these lines both by near 
views and also by distant views of the same building. Let 
them name or point out those lines in buildings which must 
have the same* vanishing point, and tell in which direction 
they vanish — to the right or to the left. 

Now it will be apparent, in accordance with the rule, 
that the lines of the rafters 2 1 and 6 8 in Fig. 3 must have 
the same vanishing point. Why do not 2 1 and 6 8 vanish 
downward instead ofitpviard? Because the ridge-pole, 1 8, 
being farther from the eye than the plate 2 6, appears the 
shorter ; and this causes 1 8 and 8 6 to seem to converge 
upward. They in reality seem to converge — that is, to 
come to a point — at N, directly above A. If the roof of 
the building were steeper than it is, the point N would be 
higher ; if the roof w r ere flatter — that is, had less pitch — 
the vanishing point N would be lower ; but, in any event, 
it would be directly above A. The line 1 3 must tend in 
the direction of a point just as far below A as N is above 



70 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

it; and this rule gives us the true position of the line 

3 1. 

[The pupils should now, with the aid of a ruler, make drawings simi- 
lar to Fig. 3, first on their slates and on the blackboard, and afterward 
on paper with a sharp-pointed and hard pencil.. In making the draw- 
ing, first lay down the ground plan abdc ; next take the point of sight 
E ; then draw EB parallel to cd, and from E draw EA at right angles to 
EB and parallel to ca. Draw next the lines representing the outermost 
rays of light that come from the object viewed to the eye, and on these 
two lines take E5 and E7, of equal length ; and the points 5 and 7 will 
give the proper direction of the horizontal line, on which, in Fig. 3, is 
supposed to be placed the perspective plane. Complete the drawing ac- 
cording to the principles and rules already given. Make other draw- 
ings similar to this, but changing the point of sight to the right or to the 
left, or placing it nearer or farther off, etc. The horizontal line and 
perspective plane may be supposed to be placed nearer the eye or more 
distant from it, thereby varying the size of the drawing.] 

IV. We may now return to Fig. 1, for the purpose of il- 
lustrating some new principles. 

In this case the horizontal line AB (and, consequently, 
the height of the eye) is above the base of the building. 
We may obtain the relative proportions of the visible width 
of the end 9 7 and of the side 9 8 in the same manner that 
we obtained the points 5, 4, and 7 in Fig. 3, by laying down 
the ground plan, and taking the position of the eye, etc. ; 
or we may draw the horizontal line AB according to our 
judgment ; and, judging likewise by the eye, we may mark 
off on it the relative positions of the three visible corners 
of the building, 9, 1, and 8. 

Suppose the outlines of the building to be completed, as 
in Fig. 3. We now wish to put in the windows, and have 
them of their relative perspective height and width. We 
will suppose, in this case, that the bottom line of the win- 
dows is at the exact height of the eye. The horizontal line 
will therefore be the guide in this direction. For their 
height, we mark off on the corner line a space above 7, ac- 
cording to the true proportion which the height of the win- 
dows bears to the whole line 2 1, and draw a line to B. 
This gives us the upper line of the windows. 

To obtain their relative perspective width and positions, 
we draw from the upper corner, 1, a line, IP, parallel to 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 71 

7 8, and in it take any point, P, so that IP shall be greater 
than 7 8, and so that a line drawn from P through the cor- 
ner 5 shall strike the horizontal line at O, any where be- 
tween 7 and 8. The line IP is now supposed to represent 
the length of the side of the building ; and it is laid off in 
divisions representing the real width of the windows and 
of the spaces between them. Thus, suppose the distance 
from the comer 1 2 to the nearest window is four feet, and 
that each window is four feet wide, and that each interven- 
ing space is also four feet wide. Then IP will be laid off 
in nine equal divisions, four of them representing the win- 
dows, and five of them the other spaces. From all the 
points a, b, c, etc., draw lines toward O, and from the 
points where these lines intersect 1 5 draw vertical lines, 
and these will give the relative widths of the windows, 
spaces, etc., as shown in the drawing. 

[Now accustom pupils to make separate drawings of the side of the 
building only, and to put in the windows, first according to the plan 
given in Fig. 1, and afterward with different plans which the teacher 
may give them. Let some of these plans require two rows of windows 
instead of one ; let some have the intervening spaces twice the width of 
the windows, etc.] 

The true perspective height and width of the large door 
in the end of the building may be obtained according to 
the method given for drawing the windows in the side of 
the building, by drawing a line from the upper corner, 1, 
to the left, parallel to 7 9, and marking off the proper spaces 
on this line, in the same that was done on IP. Or another 
method may be employed: Draw the diagonals 1 4, 3 2. 
Their intersection at s will give the true perspective centre 
of the end of the building. If the door be in the centre of 
the end, and if a point be taken any where on 1 4 for one 
side of the door, the corresponding point on the other side 
of the door must be in the other diagonal, 3 2, and also in 
a line drawn through the first assumed point to the vanish- 
ing point A. It should be noticed here that the point t — 
the gable point — must always be in the line which is drawn 
vertically through the centre s. 



72 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

[Pupils may now be accustomed to make drawings of the ends of 
buildings of different plans ; first with one door, and in the centre ; 
next with two doors, one on each side of the centre ; next with doors 
and windows, according to plans which the teacher may give. The 
teacher should describe these plans, and not make drawings of them for 
the pupils to imitate. After a sufficient number of these separate draw- 
ings of the sides and ends, let the pupils combine the whole into draw- 
ings of complete buildings.] 

V. In Fig. 4 is shown the ground plan of a square build- 
ing, with a square projection, or tower, on each corner. 
The eye of the spectator is supposed to be some distance 
above the base of the building. The design of the draw- 
ing is to show how the perspective widths of the several 
parts visible from any point, such as E, may be obtained, 
for the purpose of using them in a drawing of the whole 
building. The point of the eye at E being assumed, the 
direction of the horizontal line, and the position of the van- 
ishing points, one at A, and the other at the right of D (at 
some distance out of the picture), are then obtained, in the 
same manner as in Fig. 3. The relative perspective widths 
of er, rp, pn, md, dk, etc., are obtained on the horizontal 
line, at the points 7 6 5 4 2, etc. It will be observed that 
only hi, of the line h — , can be seen from the point of sight 
E, etc. Some little care will be required in drawing the 
various lines at the bottom of the building, below the eye ; 
such as 9 8, 8s, st, etc. Here it will be important to keep 
in mind the rule, that all parallel lines have the same van- 
ishing point. Thus, re, np, dm, and fh,ysLnish to the right, 
in the direction of D ; and rp, dk, ih, and fa, have their 
vanishing point at A. Therefore, while 8 9, which repre- 
sents re, must tend to the vanishing point to the right, 8s, 
which represents rp, must tend in the direction of A. Fol- 
lowing the simple rule, it will be easy to make accurate 
drawings of almost every possible plan of building. 

[The pupils should now make drawings of buildings having plans sim- 
ilar to Fig. 4. Let them take the ground plan of Fig. 4, and make a 
complete drawing of a building of that form, 20 feet high, and suppose 
the horizontal line to be five feet from the ground. To do this they 
should obtain the perspective widths of the different parts on a line, like 
AD, and then make the drawing on another paper.] 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 73 

VI. Fig. 5 represents a view of three square blocks (not 
cubes) placed one upon another, and each upper block less 
in area than the one below it, the whole surmounted by a 
pyramidal block, the top, or apex, of which rises to the ex- 
act height of the eye. Here the eye is supposed to have 
the same extent of view of each of the two visible sides, 
and therefore DF is made equal to DE. Practice in mak- 
ing a drawing of Fig. 5 will be worth more to the pupil 
than directions by us. In placing the second block upon 
the first, be careful to have the comers placed exactly upon 
the diagonals of the lower block. In this way each upper 
block and the pyramid are placed centrally upon the block 
below it. 

[Let the pupils make drawings similar to Fig. 5, having each succeed- 
ing block smaller in area than the one on which it rests, and placed cen- 
trally upon it. 

Draw a gradually diminishing series, like Fig. 5, extending up to the 
horizontal line ; then place upon this an inverted similar series, so as to 
show the under side of the projecting parts of the blocks. 

Let the teacher suppose the blocks placed in some different positions ; 
for example, the faces on one side all in the same vertical plane ; and 
then again, some of the blocks projecting over on one side. 

There is no end to the variety of plans which the teacher may design. 
Let the teacher place square blocks of wood (books may answer) on the 
table, or on the floor, variously arranged upon each other, and require 
pupils to make drawings of them from different positions. They will 
need to pay particular attention to the horizontal line, centre of the pic- 
ture, and vanishing points. 

Let the pupils point out, with a pointer, and fully explain, not only 
the diagram, Fig. 5, but also the drawings which they themselves have 
made.] 

Figures 6 and 7 are here supposed to form parts of one 
picture or drawing. The eye is supposed to be interme- 
diate between them, and, as in Fig. 5, at the height of the 
horizontal line, and in a line that is perpendicular to the 
perspective plane at C. 

In these two drawings, and also in Fig. 5, the eye is sup- 
posed to be as far from the centre of the picture, C, as the 
vanishing points A and B are on each side of it. In Fig. 6 
and Fig. 7, the blocks are oblong and rectangular ; that is, 
the sides represented by DE in both figures are greater 
than those represented by DF ; and the line 3 2 of the 

D 



74 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

pyramid represents a side greater in extent than 31. The 
side represented by DE is, indeed, nearly one third longer 
than that represented by DF, although to an unpracticed 
eye it may not appear any longer. 

If we had wished to represent the blocks as square in 
Fig. 6, we should have drawn a diagonal line from F to the 
vanishing point B; and the point where FB intersected 
DC would have been the true perspective position for the 
corner E. To represent the block as square, therefore, the 
corner E must be removed about half an inch nearer the 
corner D. Let it be borne in mind, therefore, that Figures 
6 and 7 do not represent square blocks, but oblong rectan- 
gular blocks. A drawing of a pyramid standing on a 
square base, and on square blocks, would present hand- 
somer proportions than the drawings we have given.* 

It will be noticed that the horizontal lines on one side 
of the blocks, both in Figures 6 and 7, are made horizontal 
in the drawing. Thus DF, JK, 8 6, etc., in both figures, 
are drawn horizontally, unlike the corresponding lines in 
Fig. 5. This is what is called parallel perspective, and is 
really a slight misrepresentation of the actual appearance 
of the lines represented; for in reality the lines represented 
by DF, GR, 8 6, etc., in Fig. 6, have the appearance of con- 
verging toward a vanishing point on the horizontal line at 
a considerable distance to the left of A. The correspond- 
ing lines in Fig. 7 would likewise seem to be directed to- 
ward a vanishing point to the right of B. But when two 
structures are situated as those represented by Figures 6 
and 7 are, with reference to the spectator, those horizontal 
lines which are parallel to the perspective plane are usually 

* All horizontal lines which make angles of 45 degrees with the per- 
spective plane are called diagonals ; and the vanishing points of these 
diagonals are on the principal horizontal line, at the same distance, one 
to the right and the other to the left, from the centre of the picture that 
the point of sight is distant from the centre of the picture. Hence it is 
easy to find where must he the vanishing points of the diagonals of the 
horizontal hase of a square ; and the intersections of these diagonals 
with other lines are aids in finding other important points in the draw- 
ing. 



FOR. OBJECT LESSONS. 75 

made horizontal in the drawing, as they are in this case, 
because they vary but slightly in appearance from being in 
a horizoutal position, because it is easiest to draw them 
horizontally, and because our impressions of their being 
actually in a horizontal position are strong enough to coun- 
terbalance the very slight error of their variance from a 
truthful representation. If the Chart be placed in a verti- 
cal position, and the eye be removed ten feet back from it, 
the difference between the distance of GD from the eye and 
HF from the eye will be so small as to be scarcely appre- 
ciable ; and hence all such lines as GH and DF (Fig. 7) 
may be drawn horizontally and parallel to each other — in 
parallel perspective. 

Let it be observed that the lines DE, JL, 8 7, 3 2, etc., 
in both drawings (Figures 6 and 7), have their vanishing 
point at C, the centre of the picture. Now these lines are 
in Nature perpendicular to the perspective plane ; and they 
exemplify the important rule that All horizontal lines that 
are perpendicular to the perspective plane have their vanish- 
ing point at the Centre of the Picture. Therefore, if a per- 
son were standing at one end of a long room or gallery, 
and looking down the length of it, all the horizontal lines 
that run from him (perpendicular to the perspective plane 
on which we may suppose he is to make a draAving of the 
gallery) would seem to tend to a point on the perspective 
plane that is just at the height of his eye — that is, the Cen- 
tre of the Picture. This principle is well illustrated in 
Fig. 8. 

Fig. 7 shows by the dotted lines on the upper surface of 
the upper block, how to obtain the exact position of the 
apex, Y. The diagonals 7 6 and B 5 must give, at their in- 
tersection, O, the perspective centre of the upper surface 
of the upper block. It is evident, therefore, that Y must 
be directly vertical to O. 

[I. Let the pupils now make drawings like Figures 6 and 7. 

2. Let them make similar drawings, but representing the blocks as 
square on the base, and also as complete cubes. Some little study of 
the diagonals already referred to in the note on the preceding page may 
be needed to accomplish this. 



76 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

3. Let them make other similar drawings from plans of their own, or 
from such plans as may be given them by the teacher. 

4. Let them also explain all as they would problems in geometry. 

5. Place the pupil at the centre of and fronting one end of a table, 
and place blocks of books on the table, and square with it, on his right 
and on his left, and let him point out the vanishing point of all the lines 
representing the edges of the books that are parallel with the sides of the 
table. Let him also make drawings of these blocks of books.] 

VI. Fig. 8 represents a view of two rows of square pil- 
lars or pilasters, five in a row, and standing in two parallel 
lines that are perpendicular to the perspective plane. The 
pillars are supposed to be at equal distances apart in each 
row ; and the distance between any two pillars is supposed 
to be double the thickness of a pillar. 

The pillars are supposed to stand on a tesselated marble 
pavement, formed of rows of alternating square blocks of 
light and dark marble, and these rows in one direction are 
parallel with the two rows of pillars. The spectator is 
supposed to stand centrally in front, so that a line from his 
eye perpendicular to the perspective plane shall strike the 
plane at C, the Centre of the Picture. Hence, according 
to the rule previously given, all lines that are perpendicu- 
lar to the perspective plane, such as IC, JC, HC, GC, etc., 
must have their vanishing point at C. The beautiful effect 
produced by such a drawing will be most apparent by 
looking through a tube that shall just embrace the entire 
drawing. A roll of paper, or the hand partially closed, will 
make a very good tube for this purpose. 

. The pillars fn Fig. 8 are drawn in parallel perspective ; 
that is, such lines as IK, GL, PJ, RH, are drawn horizon- 
tally, and parallel with each other. They have no vanish- 
ing points. > 

The most important thing connected with Fig. 8 is to 
learn how to draw the pillars at equal perspective distances 
apart, and so that they shall also diminish in thickness in 
true perspective ; while the marble blocks are also made 
to conform to the same laws. All this, however, is very 
easily done, on the principle of putting in the windows in 
Fig.l. 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 77 

Having drawn the corner line of one of the nearest pil- 
lars, IG, according to your judgment, draw a line DF par- 
allel with the horizontal line AB. In this line take any 
point 1, so that a line drawn from 1, through the corner G, 
shall strike the horizontal line at O, somewhere to the left 
of IG. Now mark off, to the left of 1, spaces that shall 
represent the true thickness of the pillars, and the spaces 
between the pillars. Thus, if the pillars be one foot in 
thickness, and the distances between the pillars be tioo feet 
in thickness, mark off 1 2 for the thickness of the first pil- 
lar ; make 2 3 double the distance of 1 2, for the space be- 
tween the first two pillars ; make 3 4 equal to 1 2, for the 
thickness of the second pillar ; make '4 5 equal to 2 3, for 
the distance between the second and third pillars ; and so 
continue for as many pillars as you design to put in. Then 
draw lines from 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, etc., to the point O, and the 
intersection of these lines with the line GC will give the 
points or positions of the lower corners of the pillars, and, 
consequently, the distances between the pillars. The same 
points give the true perspective positions of the lines which 
designate the rows of marble blocks tbat run across from 
one line of pillars to the other, with the exception of those 
lines that run from points half way between the pillars. 
These latter j>oints are obtained by drawing lines from 
points half way between 2 3, 4 5, etc., to O. Their inter- 
sections with GC will give the true intermediate points. 

The pillars on the left are drawn in the same manner as 
those on the right, beginning with the corner HJ, which is 
here supposed to be at the same distance to the left of the 
spectator as GI is to the right. The pillars on the left, 
however, are easily placed in position, with their proper 
widths, by drawing horizontal lines from the corners of the 
pillars on the right. 

[Pupils should now make drawings similar to Fig. 8. They may also 
represent uniform pieces of timber — lintels — thrown across from each 
pillar on the right to its corresponding pillar on the left. This, if neatly 
done, will be found to give increased effect to the perspective. They 
may also take the centre of the picture (C) farther to the right, or farther 
to the left. They may also draw four rows of pillars, making the pillars 



78 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

narrower, so that the eye may look between them, and see the outer 
rows. They may also make the inner rows less in height than the outer 
rows, so that the outer rows may be seen to rise above the others.] 

VII. Fig. 9 shows the perspective of the casings of a 
deep window. The eye is supposed to be in a line perpen- 
dicular to the vertical plane of the window at C. This 
drawing gives the relative perspective widths of the cas- 
ings, and the perspective of the lines 1 4, 2 3, 8 5, and 7 6. 

Fig. 10 shows the manner of finding the perspective of 
any vertical divisions on a circular tower. Draw the line 
1 8 of the length which you intend for the width of the 
drawing of the tower. On 1 8 describe a semicircle ; then 
divide this semicircle in strict accordance with the divi- 
sions on the visible part of the tower, and from the points 
of division on the semicircle draw lines vertically down- 
ward to 1 8. The divisions of 1 8 will give the perspec- 
tive of the divisions required on the tower. 



In the foregoing explanations, aided by the illustrations 
on the Chart, we have set forth, in as plain and practical a 
manner as possible, all the important principles of Linear 
Perspective. It requires no special knowledge of any of 
the higher branches to understand these principles, and to 
apply them to almost every imaginable kind of structure ; 
and we think that any intelligent pupil of 12 or 14 years 
of age can easily master this whole subject. 

Written Compositions. 

Although we have given but little more than an outline 
sketch of the three great departments of Deawing, and 
have not been able to touch upon the principles and effects 
of due proportions of light and shade in a picture, yet suf- 
ficient has been presented to furnish suggestions for a se- 
ries of compositions upon the general subject. 

Under the head of the first division may be explained 
the proper mode of making the outline sketches from pic- 
tures, and from nature, with descriptions of uncolored er> 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 79 

gravings, and of views of objects in nature, natural scenery, 
etc. The object should be to lead pupils to observe en- 
gravings carefully — to notice what parts are supposed to 
be near, and what distant, and how they are represented 
as to boldness or faintness of outline and shading, and the 
disposition of light and shade, etc. 

Under the second division let pupils refer to objects in 
nature or in art that correspond, in whole or in part, with 
any of the geometrical figures on the Chart. For example, 
let them examine the cell of the common honey-bee, and 
tell its form (hexagonal), and give reasons for its being of 
that form. Let them show what the principles of " Con- 
struction" have to do with the planning and manufacture 
of all kinds of fabrics, tools, instruments, weapons, etc. ; 
and, more especially, in the erection of dwellings, and 
buildings of all kinds. Show their connection with Archi- 
tecture. The more advanced pupils may carry out some 
of these geometrical problems in their applications to the 
measurement of lands, and other surfaces, the calculation 
of distances, etc. 

Under the third head they may explain the general 
principles of Perspective, and some of their applications to 
views of buildings. Let them take large drawings or en- 
gravings which represent buildings, and show how the 
principles of perspective apply to them — telling where the 
point of sight is supposed to be, where the horizontal line 
is, and where are the vanishing points of the various lines, 
etc. In most engravings of buildings they will be able to 
detect some errors of perspective. 



CHART No. XI. LINES AND MEASURES. 

The directions given in Calkins' "Primary Object Les- 
sons" for developing ideas of lines, measures, angles, ra- 
dius, circle, circumference, etc., render it unnecessary for 
us to take up the subject in its earlier lessons. A few def- 



80 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

initions only will be necessary here, as guides to the teach- 
er in his explanations. 

Vertical Straight Lines are such as point to the centre of the 
earth. If a plummet or other weight be suspended by a string, the 
string will be in a vertical position. Name lines that are vertical. 

Parallel Lines, which may be either straight or curved, are equally 
distant from each other in all their parts. Are the opposite vertical 
sides of a building parallel? Not exactly. Why not? 

A Perpendicular Line is spoken of only with reference to some oth- 
er line. Thus a straight line is perpendicular to another straight line 
when it makes the two adjacent angles equal to one another. Each of 
these angles is called a right angle (see Chart). But if two straight lines 
meet each other so as to make but one right angle, each is said, in this 
case also, to be perpendicular to the other (see Chart). Perpendicular 
lines may therefore be vertical, horizontal, or oblique. 

Let pupils, from their own investigation, distinguish be 
tween an arc, a chord, a radius, and a diameter; and be- 
tween a circle and a circumference. (The latter two terms 
are sometimes used as synonymous.) 

Concentric Circles are circles that have a common centre. 

An Ellipse (see page 61, and Chart No. X.) is such a curve that 
the sum of the distances of any point in it from the two foci is equal to a 
given line. This is best illustrated by the method of drawing an ellipse 
as already described. The greater diameter of the ellipse, which passes 
through the two foci, is called the transverse diameter, or major axis. 
The lesser diameter, which bisects the former perpendicularly, is called 
the conjugate diameter, or minor axis. 

Measures. — Children should be accustomed to judge 
by the eye of the circumference and diameter of circles. 
For this purpose, let them draw circles on the blackboard. 
By using a wooden rule containing inches and its drrisions, 
which every school should be provided with, they will be 
able to verify their judgment. They can easily measure 
the diameter of a circle ; but it will not be so easy to meas- 
ure the circumference. They should know, therefore, that 
the circumference of any circle is a little more than three 
times its diameter. Having this rule, they can judge very 
nearly of the circumference after they have measured its 
diameter.* 

* The circumference of a circle is 3.1416 times its diameter, or a lit- 
tle more than three and one tenth times the diameter. Having the di- 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 81 

Let pupils be accustomed to estimate the number of 
square inches in the surfaces of strips of boards, tables, 
benches, etc. ; also the number of square feet in boards, 
the tops of tables, the floor, the end or side of the room, 
etc. Do not give them cases of parts of inches or parts of 
feet to estimate until they have become perfectly familiar 
with the principle. They should learn, from simple illus- 
trations, that the number of square inches in a board, etc., 
is obtained by multiplying the length by the breadth. 

Degrees Of Circles. — Teach pupils that learned men 
have agreed that every circle, whether it be a large or a 
small circle, shall be considered as divided into 360 equal 
parts, which are called degrees. Thus, on the Chart are 
two circles, the circumference of one inclosing the circum- 
ference of the other ; but both have the same number of 
divisions or degrees. A quarter of a circle, therefore, con- 
tains 90 degrees, and half a circle contains 180 degrees. 

What kind of an angle do 90 degrees form? Less than 
90 degrees ? More than 90, and less than 180 ? 

Elevation. — Astronomers often speak of angles of elevation. Eleva- 
tion has reference to the angular height of an object above the horizon ; 
that is, above a horizontal line. Thus, if a star is said to be at an eleva- 
tion of 45 degrees, it is one half of the distance from the horizon to 
the zenith. 

Inclination, in astronomy, has reference to the angle which one line 
or one plane makes with another, in whatever positions they may be. 
Thus, in the figure on the Chart ("Inclination"), the first line at the 
left of the vertical line has an inclination to the vertical line of 15 de- 
grees ; that is, it is separated from it by an angle of 1 5 degrees ; the sec- 
ond line has an inclination to it of 23£ degrees ; the third, of 45 degrees, 
etc. The fourth line has an inclination of 75 degrees to the vertical line, 
and of 15 degrees to the horizontal line. 

The inclination of the magnetic needle is measured or denoted by the 
angle which the needle makes with the horizontal plane. In the north- 
ern hemisphere generally, the north pole of the needle dips below the 
horizontal plane, and hence makes an angle with it, which angle denotes 
the inclination of the needle. * 

ameter of a circle given, multiply 3.1416 by the diameter, and the prod- 
uct will be the circumference. * 

* The plane of the earth's equator makes an angle of 23° 28' with 
the plane of the earth's orbit, usually called the plane of the ecliptic f 
hence " the inclination of the plane of the earth's equator to the plane of 

T> 2 



82 MANUAL OF INFOEMATION 

FIKST PEINCIPLES IN GEOGEAPHY.* 

First Lesson. Direction of Objects from a given Point. 

Teacher stands at his desk, or some other suitable place, 
and asks in what direction the stove (or such other object 
as he may select) is from him? (North, or, as the case 
may be.) In what direction is the door ? In what direc- 
tion do I point with my right hand ? With my left hand ? 
In what direction from me is William ? James ? In what 
direction is Mr. A.'s house ? Mr. B.'s house ? Mr. W.'s 
house ? etc. In this manner let the points of the compass, 
from some one stand-point, be thoroughly learned. 

Second Lesson. Distance and Direction from a given 
Point, 

Teacher stands at his desk, or other suitable place, and 
asks the distances and directions from him of the four cor- 
ners of the room. The distance and direction of the stove 
from me ? " It is about eighteen feet southwest from you." 
Very well : the distance and direction of that window from 
me ? Of the door ? Of John Brown ? etc., etc. If there 
is any doubt about the correctness of any of the answers, 
the pupils should measure the distances. 

Third Lesson. Distance and Absolute Locality. 

I wish you to tell me about how far from the teacher's 

the ecliptic is 23° 28'." In Webster's large dictionary it is erroneously 
stated, under the word "inclination," that "the inclination of the axis 
of the earth to the plane of the ecliptic is 23° 28'." On the contrary, its 
axis inclines 23° 28' from a line perpendicular to the plane of the eclip- 
tic, and 66° 32' from the plane of the ecliptic itself. 

The earth and all the planets move round the earth from west to east, 
in orbits which are not exactly in the same plane, but inclined to one an- 
other by small angles. Their inclination is computed by considering the 
plane of the earth's orbit as a standard, and calculating the angle which 
the plane of each other planetary orbit makes with the plane of the earth's 
orbit. * 

* For primary exercises in "developing ideas of place," and establish- 
ing first principles in geography, see Calkins' Object Lessons, pages 242- 
268 ; Dr. Hooker's Primary Geography ; Colton's Geographical Cards. 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 83 

desk John Brown is, and in tohat part of the room. " He 
is about forty-five feet from the teacher's desk, and in the 
southwest coi'ner of the room." The same of other boys. 
In the same manner you may describe the situation of this 
chair which I place here. " The chair is about sixteen feet 
south from the teacher's desk, and a little east of the centre 
of the room." So of other objects in the room — doors, 
windows, stove, desks, etc. 

Fourth Lesson. Distance, and Comparative or Relative 
Locality. 

I wish you to tell me hoio far, and in what direction, the 
stove is from me. "About twelve feet south from you." 
(Teacher now changes his position to the other side of the 
stove, and repeats the question.) "The stove is now about 
twenty feet north from you." How far is John from Wil- 
liam, and in what direction ? William from John ? James 
from Rufus ? Rufus from James ? Thomas from Rufus ? 
Rufus from me? The door from the stove? etc. Con- 
tinue in this manner until the pupils are familiar with dis- 
tances and relative localities in the school-room. 

Fifth Lesson. Distances, Directions, and Localities, 
represented by Map-drawing. 

Teacher says, "John, I wish you to make a drawing on 
the blackboard, that shall represent the floor of this school- 
room, with its desks, seats, stoves, etc. We will call the 
upper part of the board north, the lower south, the right 
hand east, and the left hand west. You may make the 
drawing to the scale of one inch to the foot • that is, you 
may let one inch in the drawing represent a foot in the 
school-room." The teacher may now draw the scale him- 
self (say thirty or forty inches) on the blackboard, and 
draw the line for the north end of the room, and then leave 
the pupil to complete the drawing, aiding him by sugges- 
tions in the way of questions, if it should be necessary. 
Open spaces should be left in the outer lines for the doors, 
and dotted spaces for the windows. If the plan of the 



84 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

school-room is at all intricate, the seats or desks should 
not be drawn in separately at first, but merely the spaces 
marked off for their principal groups. Let the pupil meas- 
ure all the distances, and then adapt them to the scale, 
after having first guessed them. When the drawing is 
completed, the pupils should be told that this is a Map of 
the school-room. Several days will probably be occupied 

in making it. 

■■m 

Subsequent Lessons. 

After one drawing of the school-room has been made in 
this manner, in view of the class, or all the pupils, on some 
other day, while one pupil goes to the board and draws a 
similar map, unassisted, the others should be drawing maps 
of the same on their slates, with pencils that they should 
keep neatly pointed for drawing purposes. Although these 
first efforts may be exceedingly rude, yet their very rude- 
ness will be the exact measure of the pupil's capacity, 
which the teacher needs to understand, as a guide to his 
instructions. The more rude these first sketches, the more 
obstacles will the pupils have to overcome ; but it is in 
overcoming just such natural obstacles that the pupil re- 
ceives that natural educational discipline which he re- 
quires. Never place artificial obstacles in his way; but 
help him as little as possible (except by such suggestions 
as will call forth his own powers) in overcoming those 
which Nature has provided for the purpose of discipline. 
Xt may be a week, or month, or longer period, before any 
of the pupils can make a fair map of the school-room, so 
many things will be done wrong at first ; but when a pu- 
pil can draw such a map well, he can draw a map of any 
thing else with which he is acquainted ; and in the mean 
time he will have received an amount of self-imposed dis- 
cipline, whose value can hardly be overestimated. After 
a time he may be allowed to make his map on paper, with 
a pencil. 

After a fair map of the school-room has been provided, 
on the blackboard, as herein designated, the pupils should 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 85 

from time to time point out and describe the various local- 
ities, distances, etc., there represented, going over the sub- 
stance, generally, of the preceding four lessons. 

The pupils having become familiarized with this descrip- 
tive geography, their attention should next be called to the 
government and exercises of the school-room — to that 
which corresponds to the political geography of nations. 
Thus the school is an assemblage of pupils for the purposes 
of education ; the teacher is its governor or ruler ; the 
need of some one to govern, as Avell as to instruct, should 
be elicited by questions ; the principles on which he should 
govern (flhose of family government) should be called forth 
in the same manner, together with the rules of right and 
duty, which pupils are bound to obey. They should also 
describe the daily routine of exercises in the school-room, 
the classes, what each class studies, time given to recitation, 
time of opening and closing school, etc. Thus this micro- 
cosm, or world in miniature, may be made the type of that 
national life which constitutes one of the higher depart- 
ments of learning. 

Tell the pupils how many feet make a rod, how many 
rods make a quarter of a mile, how many quarters of a 
mile make a half a mile, and how many half miles make a 
mile. When they understand this, ask them, " How many 
feet or how many rods long is this building? How many 
rods across the yard in which the building is situated, from 
east to west ? From north to south ? Across the street ?" 
etc. Let them measure these distances after having guess- 
ed them. 

Next name different localities in the neighborhood, such 
as the store, the hotel, Mr. M.'s house, Mr. B.'s house, a 
conspicuous tree, rock, or other landmark, etc., and require 
the pupils to tell their directions from the school-house and 
supposed distances. The teacher should go out with his 
pupils and measure some of these distances, which may 
then serve as a measure for other distances. Thus it may 
he four rods across the street, ten rods to the corner, and 



86 MANUAL OF INFOEMATION 

eighty rods, or a quarter of a mile, to Mr. A.'s house. Hav- 
ing these distances well fixed in their minds, pupils will 
soon learn to judge of other distances. Such lessons will 
not only be a pleasant recreation, but a good mental dis- 
cipline also, requiring constant exercise of the judgment in 
comparing and measuring. If well arranged and skillfully 
conducted by the teacher, they may also be made to re- 
quire the use, unconsciously on the part of the pupils, of 
the four fundamental rules in arithmetic. Here, for exam- 
ple, is a distance of 25 rods; another of 15 rods; another 
equal to both of them : here is a distance of 40 rods, and 
another is 10 rods less ; here is one of 80 rods, another the 
half of it, and another still a quarter of it. The extent, in- 
terest, variety, and intricacy of these exercises must depend 
wholly upon the teacher's invention and judgment. Will 
they not furnish Mm also some useful mental discipline, 
and call forth additional tact in instruction ? 

Let the teacher lead the ptipils on, as in the preceding 
lessons, to draw on the blackboard and on their slates at 
first, and afterward, if he think best, on a large sheet of 
paper, a map of the neighborhood for a mile or two 
around the school building, laying down the roads, build- 
ings, streams, woods, fenced fields, etc., and having the up- 
per part of the map north. Then, with the school building 
for the point of observation, go through with the principles 
of all the preceding lessons under this geographical divi- 
sion. This should be done thoroughly, and may well oc- 
cupy the class, or the school, fifteen minutes daily for at 
least a dozen lessons. They will be learning, in this way, 
the rudiments of topographical engineering. 

Next, having completed a map of the neighborhood, with 
the roads, the buildings, the fields, the groves, the springs, 
the streams, the hills, the valleys, the woods, etc., place 
this map before the pupils, and question them, first on the 
topography, and afterward on the Natural History of the 
neighborhood — such as what fields are now used for grain, 
for pasture, for meadow, for summer fallow ; what kinds 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 87 

of grain are growing in certain fields ; what flocks or herds 
are seen in others ; what kinds of trees are found in the 
woods ; what flowers and grass in the fields ; what nox- 
ious weeds ; what kinds of soil ; what rocks or stones ; 
what fishes in the streams ; what birds are known in the 
country around ; what wild animals ; what the buildings 
are made of, whether of wood, brick, or stone ; what kinds 
of wood are used ; and what are the occupations of the in- 
habitants. Here are very suitable subjects for a series of 
compositions. 

By this time the pivpils will have learned the rudiments 
of Geography — mathematical, 'political, and physical. If 
the exercises have been skillfully conducted, they will not 
have deemed it a study, buf a recreation ;■ and they will be 
prepared to understand a map of the town, a map of the 
county, a map of the state, and a map of the United States 
— which should be taken up and studied in the order here 
given. 

A town map, containing the roads, streams, etc., should 
be found in every school-room; and if the town has a just 
appreciation of the importance of geographical knowledge, 
and of the true mode of acquiring it, it will furnish such a 
map for every school, and deem it an economical expendi- 
ture. The teacher would, it is true, be compelled to sup- 
ply much of the descriptive matter ; but the pupils would 
now be able to understand and to appreciate it, from its 
similarity to what they themselves had furnished respect- 
ing their own neighborhood. Thus, step by step, would 
they proceed from the known to the unknown, and from 
particulars to generals, in the true inductive method, until 
they had embraced the geography of all the countries of 
the globe — their knowledge of things being less and less 
minute, as they diverge farther from the central point of 
Home. But this is the true order of importance, as it is 
the order which Nature has marked out for us. Things 
near are those which first and most concern us ; they first 
arrest our attention ; they most excite our sympathies ; 
they are most nearly connected with all our interests ; 



88 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

they, indeed, almost fill our entire vision — standing up be- 
fore us conspicuous in all the details of form and coloring ; 
while the distant, little discerned, little thought of, having 
but few and feeble connections with us, either dwindles 
away in dim and shadowy outline, or entirely vanishes in 
obscurity. 

How differently from the old system, then, should we 
teach geography to our children ! We began the study, 
not at home, and by observing and describing familiar lo- 
calities around us, but at as distant a point as possible, by 
being told that there are certain planets that revolve 
around the sun ; that the earth is one of these planets ; that 
it is a round globe or ball, and that it may be circumnavi- 
gated ; certain great circles and certain smaller circles 
were then described to us in language mystical, and paral- 
lels of latitude and longitude, and zones ; and after a long- 
while we got a footing on terra firma ; but, alas ! we 
never got so near home as our native town, and the scenes 
of our childhood. In those days we never dreamed that 
what we knew about the fields, and the woods, and the 
streams, and the hills, and the valleys around us — all de- 
lightful knowledge, and to this day teeming with pleasant 
associations — had any thing to do with that dry and dis- 
tasteful study which a certain school-book told us is " a 
description of the earth." 

Composition, — The teacher will find suitable subjects 
for a series of written compositions in the foregoing exer- 
cises, as already suggested. These compositions should be 
carried on simultaneously with the pupil's progress; and 
what he can describe in words, he should be accustomed 
to put on paper. This matter of beginning early to write 
compositions upon the subjects talked about and studied, is 
highly important, and should on no account be neglected. 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 89 



CHAET No. XII. FORMS AND SOLIDS. 

The chief object of this Chart is to lead pupils, first, to 
recognize and name the principal mathematical forms and 
solids, and afterward to describe them. Forms and solids 
of the same size as those represented here have been pre- 
pared, cut out of wood, and may be obtained either with 
or without the Charts. 

It will be found that quite young pupils can learn to 
recognize these objects as easily as any others, if they can 
be made to take an interest in them. The lessons on this 
Chart, generally, should precede the " Geometrical Draw- 
ings" from Chart No. X. The mathematical descriptions 
should not be required until the pupils are perfectly famil- 
iar with both the forms shown on the Chart, and the 
wooden blocks also. For the first lessons for developing 
ideas of Form, see Calkins' Primary Object Lessons, pages 
41-93. 

1. 1. In the first exercises from this Chart we suggest 
that one pupil point out the first form (right-angled tri- 
angle), another select the same from the blocks, a third 
name it, and a fourth write its name on the blackboard, or 
set it up with the Letter-cards. 

2. Go through with all the other forms and solids in a 
similar manner. 

II. 1. Go through with all in the same manner as before, 
and, in addition, give a brief description or definition of 
each figure, and also draw on the board, or require the pu- 
pils to do it, different /b^ms of the same figure, where they 
can be made to accord with the definition. Thus the right- 
angled triangle admits of a great variety of forms ; so of 
all the figures in the second line, except the isosceles tri- 
angle. Let the pupils be particular to point out the dif- 
ferences between figures that somewhat resemble each 
other. 

2. In connection with the foregoing, let the pupils name 
and describe objects that have forms similar to the blocks. 



90 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 



Definitions of Forms. See Chart. 

A Triangle (see second row of figures on the Chart) is a plane* fig- 
ure, which is bounded by three lines. Such figures are said to be tri- 
angular. If the lines are straight, the triangle is rectilinear; if they are 
curved, it is a curved, or curvilinear triangle, as in the fourth row on the 
Chart. A triangle may also be partly rectilinear, and partly curvilinear. 

A Right-angled triangle is a triangle that-has one right angle. f 

A Square is a plane figure that has/our equal sides, and four right 
angles.^ 

A square is a rectan' 'gular, or right-angled figure. 

A Pentagon is a plane figure that has Jive equal sides, and five equal 
angles. § 

A pentag'onal figure. 

A Hexagon has six equal sides, and six equal angles. Hexag'onal. 

A Heptagon has seven equal sides, and seven equal angles. Hep- 
tag'onal. 

An Octagon has eight equal sides, and eight equal angles. Octag'- 
onal. 

An Isosceles triangle is a triangle which has only two sides equal. 

An Equilateral triangle is one that has all its sides equal. 

A Parallelogram is a four-sided figure which has its opposite sides 
parallel, and consequently equal. In common use this word is applied 
to figures of more length than breadth. 

A Trapezium is a four-sided (quadrilateral) figure, none of whose 
opposite sides are parallel. 

A Trapezoid is a four-sided figure, having two of the opposite sides 
parallel. 

A Rhomb is a four-sided figure whose sides are equal, and the oppo- 
site sides parallel ; but it has two opposite and equal acute angles, and 
two opposite equal and obtuse angles. 

A Rhomboid is a four-sided figure whose opposite sides and angles 
are equal ; but neither are all its sides nor all its angles equal. Rhom- 
boid'al. 

An Oval figure may either be in the shape of an egg, or of an ellipse ; 
but the term means, literally, egg-shaped. 

An Ellipse is a figure formed by cutting a cone by a plane that passes 
obliquely through the opposite sides of the cone. It may also be formed 
in another manner, as described on page 61. Ellip'tical. 

* Tell them a plane (not plain) figure is an even, level, or flat surface, 
which has no thickness. They must understand, therefore, that it is only 
the flat surface of the blocks that constitute the "Forms" named and rep- 
resented on the upper part of the Chart. The teacher must not allow 
pupils to make the mistake of supposing that the whole block is what con- 
stitutes the triangle, square, pentagon, etc. f See page 56. 

% All figures of four sides are called quadrilaterals. 

§ All figures that are bounded by three lines, or more, are polygons ; 
but in common use the term is applied to figures that are bounded by 
more than four straight lines. 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 91 

A Circle is a plane figure inclosed by a single curved line, called its 
circumference, every part of which is equally distant from a point within, 
called the centre,. In popular language, however, the circumference itself 
is often called a circle. Circular. 

?emicircles are half circles. Semicircular. 
Segment of a circle is a part of a circle cut offby a straight line. 
This straight line is called a chord ; and that part of the circumference 
which is cut offby it is called an arc. An an: is, also, any part of the 
circumference. 

A Quadrant is a quarter of a circle. 

A Sector is the figure included between an arc and the two radii 
drawn to the extremities of the arc. 

A Crescent is a figure in the shape of the new moon. 

A Ring is any thing in the form of the circumference of a circle. 

I3P For definitions of other "Forms," see Botany, page 178. 

Definitions of Solids. 

A Sphere is a solid body contained under a single surface, which, in 
every part, is equally distant from a point called its centre. Spher'ical. 

A Hemisphere is a half sphere. Hemispherical. 

A Spheroid is a solid body approaching to a sphere, but not perfectly 
spherical. It may be either prolate, or oblate. Aprolate spheroid is one 
that is oblong, or prolonged, like the one represented on the Chart ; an 
oblate spheroid is one that is flattened on two opposite sides. Thus, the 
earth is an oblate spheroid, because it is flattened at the poles. 

A Tetrahedron is a solid bounded by four equal and equilateral tri- 
angles. See, also, page 62. For the hexahedron, octahedron, dodecahe- 
dron, and icosahedron, see page G2-3. 

A Cube is a solid with six equal square sides, and containing equal 
angles. Cubical. 

A Prism is a solid whose bases, or ends, are any similar, equal, and 
parallel plane figures, and whose sides are parallelograms. Two forms 
of prism are represented on the Chart. Prismat'ical. 

A Cone is a solid body having a circle for its base, and its top term- 
inated in a point. Cones may be of two kinds t a right cone, which has 
its axis perpendicular to the plane of its base ; and an oblique cone, whose 
axis is inclined, or leaning. Conical. 

A Cylinder is a long, circular body, of uniform diameter, its extrem- 
ities forming equal parallel circles. Cylin' drical. 

G^ The teacher should exercise the older pupils in the mensuration 
of surfaces and solids like those represented on the Chart, and in practi- 
cal applications of the rules. They will much better remember the rules 
by being familiar with the forms of the surfaces and solids. 

Compositions. — " Forms and solids" may be thought a 
dry subject for compositions. But every object in Nature, 
as well as in Art, is comprehended under certain forms / 
and every solid will be found under some one or more of 
the forms on this Chart and Chart No. XL, or combina- 



92 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

tions of them. Let pupils, therefore, describe objects as 
to their shape ; telling by what lines they are bounded, 
under what surfaces they are contained, and what solids 
they form. This will lead them to observe carefully, and 
to describe accurately. They will also thus learn the ap- 
propriate use of the descriptive adjective terms — the idea 
having been first obtained, and then the word. 



CHAET No. XIII. FAMILIAR COLORS. 

This Chart presents a popular view of thirty-five of the 
principal colors familiar in painting, dress, and flowers, 
with the common names by which they are best known ; 
and its object is to train the eye to distinguish between 
colors, and to recognize them when viewed separately. 
To aid in this object this Chart is accompanied with a du- 
plicate set of cards, corresponding in size and color to the 
rejn'esentations on the Chart. 

For a somewhat full scientific presentation of the charac- 
ter, combinations, and effects of colors, we refer to the ex- 
]3lanations of the next Chart, No. XIV. It will be sufficient 
here to explain to pupils, briefly, only a few of the leading 
principles of colors. 

1. Tell them that there are only three Pkimaey colors — 
red, yellow, and blue — from which all others may be formed. 
Point out these three colors at the top of the Chart, and 
let the pupils point out, from the squares below, those that 
match them, and also select the corresponding colors from 
the cards. Let them mention, or bring in, objects whose 
colors correspond with these. They should be kept upon 
these exercises until they can distinguish readily between 
pure yellow, red, and blue, and their various tints and 
shades. (See, also, "Primary Object Lessons," p. 112, 113.) 

2. Next point out the Secondary colors, and proceed 
with them in the same manner as with the primai'ies. 
After pupils have learned to distinguish these colors read- 
ily, show them by what mixtures of the primaries they are 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 93 

formed. Thus, pointing to the lower right-hand corner of 
the Chart, show them that orange is formed by mixing red 
and yellow ; green by mixing yellow and blue ; and purple 
by mixing blue and red.* 

3. Next go through with the three Tektiabies in a sim- 
ilar manner. After the pupils can distinguish these read- 
ily, show them by what mixtures of the secondaries they 
are formed.f 

4. Next take the five colors enumerated as belonging to 
the " Reds ;" let the pupils match them from the cards, se- 
lecting tico cards for each color, and naming the colors of 
the cards as each is produced. Afterward mingle the ten 
cards indiscriminately, and let the pupils name their colors 
without looking at the Chart. 

5. Proceed with the " Yellows" in the same manner. 

6. Proceed with the " Blues" in the same manner. 

7. Proceed with the " Oranges" in the same manner. 

8. Proceed with the " Greens" in the same manner. 

9. Proceed with the " Purples" in the same manner. 

10. Proceed with the '■'Browns" in the same manner. 
For what constitutes leading or standard colors, tints, 

shades, and hues, see pages 105 and 107. What are de- 
nominated the shades of colors, on Chart No. XIII., are 
not, strictly, shades, although they are popularly considered 
such, A shade of a color, as described on page 10 , is 

* Indigo is not, properly, a secondary color, but a sub-secondary, as it 
is one of the shades of purple-blue. See Chromatic Scale, Chart No. 
XIV. It is, however, on this Chart, No. XIII., placed among the sec- 
ondaries, because it was formerly included among the distinct colors of 
the solar spectrum, and is still, generally, so enumerated. 

t It would now be well if pupils could be supplied with the three pri- 
mary colors, that they might learn to form the secondaries and tertiaries 
by actually mixing the primaries. The proportions will be best learned 
when they come to the next Chart ; but it is best for them now to experi- 
ment, without rules. For some excellent observations on the early use of 
colors, see Herbert Spencer's work on Education, page 141-143. He rec- 
ommends the use of cheap wood-cuts to be colored by the pupils. He 
says, "No matter how daubed and glaring the colors. The question is 
not whether the child is producing good drawings ; the question is, 
whether it is developing its faculties." 



94 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

formed by mixing that color with black ; but, popularly- 
considered, when a small portion of some dark color is 
mixed with a lighter color, so as to give to the lighter 
color a darker shade, although it may change its hue, the 
color thus produced is often spoken of as a shade of the 
given color. Thus, in the column of " Reds" on the Chart, 
a deep crimson (which is formed by mixing a very little 
blue with pure deep red) is sometimes called a crimson 
shade of red. It is, however, a misapplication of terms : the 
color is, properly, a dark shade of crimson. 

After the pupil has acquired some familiarity with the 
Chromatic Scale, Chart No. XIV., he should return to the 
" Familiar Colors" of Chart No. XIII., and assign to each 
its proper place in the more scientific arrangement of the 
scale. Thus : 

( Crimson is one of the Purple-Reds. It has many tints, hues, and 
\ shades. 
" J Carmine : A pure Red. It has many tints and shades.* 
$ "S Scarlet: One of the Orange-Reds ; of many tints, hues, and shades. 
i Vermilion : One of the Orange-Reds — approaching orange. 
(_ Pink : A tint of pure Red. Many varieties. 
Citrine : A tertiary color, intermediate between orange and green. 
Yellow: A pure Yellow. Chrome Yellow: of many tints and 

shades. 
Lemon : One of the Greenish- Yellows. Yellow slightly tinged 

with green. 
Canary : One of the Greenish-Yellows — so little green as to be 
but just perceptible. 
^Straw : One of the tints of pure Yellow. Many varieties. 
Indigo: One of the deep shades of Purple-Blue. Mazarine Blue 

is another of these shades, but contains more red. 
Ultramarine : The purest Blue. A primary color : many tints and 

shades. 
Prussian Blue : One of the Greenish-Blues. A deep blue, slight- 
ly tinged with green. 
Light Blue : A tint of pure Blue. 
Sky-Blue : A still lighter tint of pure Blue. 

{Amber : A transparent Dark Orange, or a deep shade of Orange- 
Yellow. 
Orange : A secondary color, of many tints, hues, and shades. 
Salmon : A tint of Orange-Red. 
Buff: One of the Orange-Yellows. Many varieties. 
Cream : A light tint of Orange-Yellow. 

* The pure or primary colors have not, of course, any hues. See p. 107. 



Is 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 95 

Olive : A tertiary color, in which blue preponderates. What are 
called Olive- Greens are shades of Greenish-Blue, such as may be 
produced by mixtures of violet and green. Many tints, hues, and 
shades. 

J Green: A secondary color, of many tints, hues, and shades.* 
'' Emerald- Green: A greenish tint of Greenish-Blue ; that is, a light 
green slightly tinged with blue. 
Pea- Green: A greenish tint of Greenish-Yellow; that is, alight 

green tinged with yellow. 
^.Light Green : One of the tints of pure Green. 
'Royal Purple : One of the rich shades of Purple — best represented 

by a very deep purple silk. 
•Purple : A secondary color, of many tints, hues, and shades. 
Violet : One of the deeper tints of Purple-Blue, often approaching 

pure purple. Many varieties. 
Like: A lighter tint of Purple, often inclining to a Purple-Blue. 

Many varieties. 
Lavender .- A still lighter tint of Purple-Blue — lighter than violet, 
and often inclining to a pure purple tint. 

TheBroicns. These are not represented on the Chromat- 
ic Scale, with the exception of russet. For descriptions of 
the browns, maroons, and grays, see page 101. 

Having a knowledge of the Chromatic Scale, the pupil 
should now be able to assign any given color to its proper 
place among the definite colors of the scale. Sometimes 
the color may be a shade, or it may be a tint of one of the 
definite colors. Thus, among the numerous orange-reds in 
cloths, worsted, etc., may be found light scarlets, which are 
tints of orange-red, at one extreme, and shades of auburn, 
which are brownish shades of orange-red, at the other ex- 
treme. A color may also be on the boundary line between 
two definite colors. Thus some of the orange hues ap- 
proach the scarlets, and some of the scarlets approach or- 
ange ; for the varieties of tints, hues, and shades are al- 
most innumerable, and fanciful names of colors are con- 
stantly springing up, as new fabrics of new combinations 
of colors are presented to the public. All popular names 

* The "Dark Green" of the Chromatic Scale should have -been made 
darker on some of the Charts by a mixture of red, as its combination is 
3 parts of yellow, 3 parts of blue, and 2 parts of red. For a similar rea- 
son, the "Dark Orange" should be darkened by blue; and the "Dark 
Purple" should be broicned by yellow. 



96 MANUAL OF INFOKMATION 

of colors should be referred to and judged by the stand- 
ards that are represented by the definite combinations of 
the Chromatic Scale. From the very nature of things, 
there can be no other standards. 

Compositions. — Let pupils write compositions upon these 
"Familiar Colors," describing them; naming the primaries, 
secondaries, and tertiaries, and telling how the secondaries 
and tertiaries are formed ; and, more especially, describing 
the colors of natural objects which are presented to them, 
or with which they are familiar. 



CHAET No. XIV. CHEOMATIC SCALE OF 
COLOES. 

The following article, in connection with the Chart, is 
designed to give as complete a view as our limits will al- 
low of the principles of Colors, their combinations and 
proportions, tints, shades, and hues, and their varied har- 
monic or discordant effects upon each other when placed in 
juxtaposition. If we are not mistaken, it will be found 
that children can easily learn both the facts and the prin- 
ciples here presented, and that, in addition to the new and 
Avonderful things in the beauties and in the philosophy of 
Nature which this subject will unfold to them, it will be 
found admirably adapted to the cultivation not only of the 
observing, but of the reflective faculties also. 

It is designed that the teacher shall explain to the pupils 
the principles here presented, after which the pupils should 
make the applications by constructing the tables, answer- 
ing the questions, and going through the exercises, and 
also in carrying out still farther the principles of colors. 
A great amount of information is contained in the present 
synopsis, as illustrated by the Scale, and the subject may 
well serve for short semi-weekly exercises during a couple 
of years. For written Compositions on colors, see the 
close of this article. 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 97 

I. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF LIGHT, DARKNESS, AND COLOR. 

A ray of solar light, in itself white, may be separated, by 
passing it through a prism, into an indeterminate number 
of variously-colored rays, which are distributed into seven 
groups, termed red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and 
violet ^ (or purple) rays. These colored rays, thus obtained, 
constitute what are called the solar spectrum. Yet all the 
rays comprised in the same group are not identical in color, 
but may be considered as differing more or less among 
themselves.* 

When an object reflects all the solar rays to the eye, the 
object presents the appearance we call white. When it 
reflects none of them, it appears black. When what we 
call a colored object is seen, it reflects a certain portion of 
the solar rays to the eye, and absorbs the others. Thus, 
if the object reflects the red rays, it appears red; if it re- 
flects the yellow rays, it appears yelloio, etc.f 

It is evident that the absorbed colored rays are of a dif- 
ferent color from the reflected colored rays ; and also that 
if the two kinds were reunited, they would neutralize each 
other, and white light would be reproduced. It is this 
property of two variously-colored lights, taken in certain 
proportions to reproduce white light, that we express by 

* This is the Newtonian theory of light. A theory has lately been 
brought forward in England, that light is simple and uncompounded— 
homogeneous in nature ; and that as it comes to the eye, from different 
objects, in modified quantities, it impresses the sense of vision with relative 
forces that convey to the brain the conceptions of color. See London 
Review, Dec. 28, 1861. This theory, however, does not affect the prin- 
ciples illustrated in this article. 

t But notwithstanding the general principle here stated, even the 
blackest object reflects some white light. Every colored object, red for 
instance, also reflects a small portion of all other colored rays besides red ; 
yet, as the red rays are greatly predominant, we call the object red! 
This principle has been fully established by the experiments of Sir Da- 
vid Brewster. It will be important to bear this principle in mind when 
we come to consider the effect that colors in juxtaposition have upon 
each other. 

E 



98 



MANUAL OF INFORMATION 



the words, colored lights complementary to each other, or 
complementary colors. 

Exercises. — Why does an object appear red? (Be- 
cause it reflects the red rays to the eye, and absoi'bs the 
others.) Why does an object appear yellow ? Why blue ? 
Why orange ? Why green ? Why purple ? etc. 

II. THE COMBINATIONS OF COLORS, AS SHOWN BY THE 
CHROMATIC SCALE. 




UNCOLOBED MQUATUBE COPY OF THE CHBOMATIO SCALE. 



* The large colored Chromatic Scale shown on the Chart is mostly a 
combination of the scales of the English writer Field and the French 
writer Chevreul, embracing all the principles of both, together with what 
we believe to be some important improvements in modes of illustration. 
As additions to the Chromatic Scale of Field, it represents the normal 



FpR OBJECT LESSONS. 99 

Although a solar ray— that is, white light— may be di- 
vided into six or seven differently-colored groups, yet only 
three of these groups, Yellow, Red, and Blue, are what 
are called Primary Colors. The remaining three or four 
are really made up of combinations of the three Primaries 
It has been found that if we take the three Primaries of 
equal degrees of intensity, or, in other words, the deepest 
and purest red, yellow, and blue, as seen in the solar spec 
trum, and combine them in the proportions of 3 parts of 
yellow 5 parts of red, and 8 parts of blue, they produce 
white light. And yet if they are combined in such pro- 
portions that two of them considerably predominate, a 
grayish hue, approaching black, will be produced. 

The union of the solar rays in such proportions as to 
produce white gives us the principles of the Chromatic 
bcale for all the regular combinations of colors. In the 

or standard tones, fully illustrates the principles of the tints, shades, and 
hues of colors, and assigns their appropriate positions to the semi-neutral 
browns, maroons, and grays. 

Some explanation is required as to the colors represented on the 
Chromatic Scale, and also on all the Charts. Some may be disappoint- 
ed m not finding them as pure and brilliant as they have before seen 
then,, and especially in silks. In the first place, paper made of cotton 
does not take color so well as silk. In the second place, as paper is 
bleached white by the use of lime, it still contains some lime, which -is 
painters say, -kills" the colors. The lime injures some colors more 
than o hers. In the third place, all colors fade more or less by exposure 
to the light. In the fourth place, where colors are grouped as they are 
on the Chromatic Scale, those that are in juxtaposition diminish the 
brilliancy of each other, as will be learned from the principles explained 
in this article. If you wish to see what any one of these colors is bv it- 
self, cover up all the others, and look at that one alone when the eve is 
m its normal state. All these things are difficulties which we have to 
contend with, and for which due allowance should be made. The col- 
ors on jthe Chart, however, with which very great pains have been taken 
are sufficiently brilliant for all practical purposes. The Primaries-red 
yellow, and blue-are as good as could be obtained ; and so long as the 
others are made by the proper nnxtures, they must present the true com- 
jwative hues and shades of all the other colors. The colors on Chart 
No. XIII. are brighter than on Chart No. XIV., as in the former the 
paper was colored in sheets, and then cut up and pasted on 



100 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

centre of this scale is a dark circle, which may either de- 
note an object that absorbs all the solar rays, and hence 
appears black, or it may denote the mixture of the rays in 
certain proportions different from those that constitute 
white. Grouped around this centre are six large circles, 
three of which, designated as Yellow, Red, and Blue, 
represent the three Primaries, while their figures, 3,5, and 
8, denote the proportions in which they combine to pro- 
duce white. But yellow and red combine in their respect- 
ive proportions, 3 and 5, to produce Orange ; yellow and 
blue in their respective proportions, 3 and 8, to produce 
Green ; blue and red in their respective proportions, 8 and 
5, to produce Purple — as shown in the circles lying be- 
tween the three couplets of the Primaries. This gives us 
what are called the Secondary Colors, Orange, Green, 
and Purple, and likewise shows their combining propor- 
tions : that orange is made of 8 parts of colored light (3 of 
yellow and 5 of red) ; green of 11 parts (3 of yellow and 8 
of blue) ; and purple of 13 parts (8 of blue and 5 of red).* 
Indigo, which was formerly included among the secondary 
colors, is merely a deep purple-blue. 

If now we take the Secondary colors, and combine them 
two by two, we shall form the Tertiary Colors, Russet, 
Citrine, and Olive, and have their combining proportions, 

* Some writers say that equal proportions of red and yellow produce 
orange, equal proportions of yellow and blue produce green, etc. This 
may be true if the colors be of the right tone to produce such effects. 
Instead of taking 5 parts red and 3 parts yellow to produce orange, it is 
evident that we may take 5 parts of each, if we diminish the tone of the 
yellow, or increase that of the red. It all depends upon what tones of 
the several colors we take for the standard or normal colors ; but as it is 
impossible to find any pure pigments or paints of these three colors, or 
even to be certain that we can always have them alike, it is better to 
take a standard that never varies, and such we have in the colors seen 
in the solar spectrum. The red, yellow, and blue of the solar spectrum 
are therefore very properly taken as the normal or standard tones of those 
three colors. They are thus given in Field's Chromatography. In the 
very able and more recent work of the French writer, Chevreul, this mat- 
ter is most strangely overlooked. We find there, indeed, no standard for 
any color. 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 101 

which are found by adding the numbers of the Secondaries 
which form each respectively. Thus orange 8 and purple 
13 foi'm russet 21 ; orange 8 and green 11 form citrine 19 ; 
green 11 and purple 13 form olive 24. 

Moreover, if we unite each Secondary with each of its 
adjoining Primaries, we shall form a fourth class, of six 
colors — Orange -Red, Orange -Yellow, Greenish -Yellow, 
Greenish-Blue, Purple-Blue, and Purple-Red — which may 
be called Sub-Secondaries. Their combining proportions, 
given on the Chart, follow the same rule as before given. 
By combining the Tertiaries, two by two, we form a fifth 
class, of three colors — Dark Orange, Dark Green, and Dark 
Purple — which may be called Sub-TertiarieS. 

Thus far all the colors are composed of the three Prima- 
ries, and their regular combinations in definite proportions. 
Of these, the lighter or purer colors are, first, the Prima- 
ries, and next the Secondaries, which are arranged in the 
larger circles and around the outer portions of the Scale. 
Next, in point of purity, are the Sub-Secondaries, which 
are of a darker hue than either of the former classes. Then 
come the Tertiaries and Sub- Tertiaries, which have their 
appropriate grouping nearer the black centre of the Scale, 
and which are of a much darker and less pure hue than the 
Secondaries and Sub-Secondaries. 

But there is a still darker class of irregular or broken 
colors, formed by no very definite mixtures of the darker 
colors among those already mentioned. These latter, usu- 
ally called Semi-neutral colors, embrace the three groups 
of the Browns, the Maroons or Chocolates, and the Grays. 

1. The Browns are those very dark shades, or combina- 
tions, in which yellow, orange, or citrine predominates. 
There are yellow, orange, red, and purple browns, but no 
blue browns. The browns are mostly of warm or tawny 
hues. 

2. The Maroons or Chocolates are those dark shades, or 
combinations, in which red, purple, or russet predominates. 
They are intermediate between the warm browns, and the 
cold grays. The maroons proper incline to the dark pur- 



102 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

pies, and the chocolates to the dark orange, approaching 
the browns. 

3. The Grays are those dark shades, or combinations, in 
which blue, green, or olive predominates. 

Hot and Cold Colors. 

As blue possesses, in the greatest degree, the quality 
technically. called coldness in coloring, and as it communi- 
cates this property variously to all colors with which it is 
compounded, the Chromatic Scale shows blue as the cold- 
est color, whence the coldness gradually diminishes until 
the medium between the cold and the hot colors is at- 
tained at purple-yellow and yellowish-green. From these 
two points the warm colors increase gradually until they 
attain their maximum of heat at orange., the complement- 
ary of the cold blue. 

Let the pupil now tell, from the Chromatic Scale, the 
relations, as to heat and cold, which the colors sustain to 
each other. 

Retiring and Advancing Colors. 

Purple is the most retiring color, as shown on the Chro- 
matic Scale (see Chart) ; that is, it declines in power the 
most rapidly in proportion to the distance at which it is 
viewed, and also in a declining light. 

Its complementary yellow, on the contrary, is the most 
advancing of all colors, partaking most of the nature of 
white, and consequently of greatest power in reflecting 
light. 

As to the beauty of colors individually ; that is, when 
viewed alone, it may be stated, that those colors which are 
nearest in nature to light, have their greatest beauty in 
their lighter tints ; and that those which are nearest in na- 
ture to shade, are most beautiful in their greatest depth or 
fullness — a law which of course applies to black and white 
particularly. Thus, the most beautiful yellow, the color 
most like white, is that which is lightest and most vivid ; 
blue, the color most like black, is most beautiful when deep 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 103 

and rich ; and red, when of intermediate depth, or some- 
what inclined to light. 

III. TABLE OF COLOES ; THEIR COMBINATIONS, PROPORTIONS, 
AND COMPLEMENTARIES. 

See the Chromatic Scale. 

Colors. Their Combinations and Proportions. Their Complementaries. 

_ . (Yellow3 Purple 13. 

Prima- J Red 5 Green 11. 

Ties. ( Bkie s Orange 8. 

c , ( Orange 8 = (Red 5, Yellow 3) Blue 8. 

Ssecpnd- J Green n _ (Yellow 3, Blue 8) Red 5. 

aries. ( p U rple 13 = (Red 5, Blue S) Yellow 3. 



f Citrine 10 = (Or. and Gr. =Red 5, Yel. 6, Blue 8). . ) 1Pt ^S^i& ^^ 

Usuries. 



Ter- 3 ^ l " lluv ^ — v x - tt " u "" — " cu "' * ™* "' " "° "'•• I Purple 45. 

) Olive 24= (Gr. and Purp. = Yel. 3, Red 5, Blue 16). Or. 8, or Dark Or. 40. 



I Russet 21 = (Or. and Purp. = Red 10, Yel. 3, Blue 8) Gr.ll, or Dark Gr.43. 

('Orange-Red 13= (Or. 8, Red 5= Red 10, Yel. 3) Greenish-Blue 19. 

-. . V Orange- Yel. 11 = (Or. 8, Yel. 3 = Red 5, Yel. 6) Purple-Blue 21. 

e "a J Greenish- Yel. 14=(Gr. 11, Yel. 3 = Yel. 6, Blue S) .. Purple- Red 18. 

second- \ Qreenish-Bl. 10 = (Gr. 11, Blue 8 = Yel. 3, Blue 10) . Orange-Red 13. 
aries. j i> ur pi e .Bl. 21 = (Purp. 13, Blue 8 = Blue 16, Red 5) . Orange- Yellow 11. 

C.Purple-Red 1S= (1'urp. 13, Red 5 = Blue 8, Red 10) . Greenish-Yellow 14. 
Sub- ( Dark Or.40 = (Rus.21, Cit.19 = Red 15,Yel.9, B1.16UOUve 24. 
Tertia- \ Dark Gr.43 = (Cit.19, Ol. 24 = Red 10, Yel.9, Bl. 24* Russet 21. 
aries. (DarkPurp.45= (Rus.21,01.24=Red 15,Yel.6,B1.24) Citrine. 

I, Exercises from the Scale, on the Primaries, Second- 
aries, and Tertiaries.* 

1. Name the three Primary colors, and their respective combining 
numbers. 

2. The combinations of the Primaries, two by two, form the three 
Secondary colors, lying between the three couplets that may be formed 
of the Primaries. 

How is orange formed? By the combination of yellow and red. In 
what proportions? Three parts of yellow, and 5 of red. What, then, is 
the combining number of orange ? Eight. Why ? Because 3 parts of 
yellow and 5 parts of red make the eight parts which constitute orange. 

* All the exercises under this head, and, indeed, all pertaining to 
Chart No. XIV., should be gone through with by the pupils, by the aid 
of the Chromatic Scale alone. What we have written out under the head 
of " Exercises" on the Chromatic Scale, is designed merely as a guide 
and aid to the teacher. He should make himself thoroughly master of 
the principles, and then lead the pupil to master the same from the 
Scale, as from a map. As soon as the pupil has learned the positions 
of the colors on the Scale, so that he can recall them without the aid of 
the Chart to look at, he will be able to name the several colors, and de- 
scribe their combinations, with the same facility that he is able to bound 
countries by remembering their relative positions on a map. 



104 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

3. Go through with the composition of green, in a similar manner. 

4. Go through with purple in the same manner. 

5. The combinations of the Secondaries, two by two, form the three 
Tertiary colors, citrine, russet, and olive, which are found, on the Scale, 
at the intersections of the three couplets of the Secondaries. 

How is russet formed ? By the combination of orange and purple. 
In what proportions ? Eight parts of orange, and 13 of purple. What, 
then, is the combining number of russet? Tiventy-one. Why? Because 8 
parts of orange and 13 of purple make the 21 parts which constitute russet. 

How many Primary colors enter into the composition of russet ? The 
whole three, red, yellow, and blue. In what proportions ? Red 10, yel- 
low 3, and blue 8. Explain the reason of this. Russet is formed by the 
combination of the two Secondaries, orange and purple ; but orange is 
composed of 5 parts of red and 3 of yellow ; and purple of 5 parts of red 
and 8 of blue ; therefore, red is taken twice, and yellow and blue each 
once ; and thus we have 10 of red, 3 of yellow, and 8 of blue. 

6. Next go through with citrine and olive in the same way. 

7. A class of six colors, called Sub-Secondaries, and lying between the 
Secondaries and Primaries on the Scale, is formed by combining each 
Secondary with each of its allied Primaries, in the proportions desig- 
nated by their respective numbers. Thus, red and yellow are united to 
produce orange, after which the orange itself may be combined with red 
to form orange-red.* This latter color thus has 10 parts of red and 3 
parts of yellow — a* proportion of red just twice what is contained in or- 
ange. In a similar manner orange-yellow is formed, containing just 
twice the yellow contained in orange. 

II. Exercises from the Scale, on the Sub-Secondaries 
and Sub-Tertiaries. 

Explain, from the Scale, the formation of orange-red, and show why 
13 is its combining number. Orange-red is formed by combining 8 parts 
of orange with 5 parts of red. But orange itself is formed of 3 parts of 
yellow and 5 parts of red. Therefore, substituting, in the place of the 
orange, the yellow and red Primaries which compose it, we find that all 
the colors and proportions which make up the orange-red are 10 parts 
of red and 3 parts of yellow, making 13 parts in all. 

Explain the formation of orange-yellow, in a similar manner. Of 
greenish-yellow. Of greenish-blue. Of purple-blue. Of purple-red. 

When we combine the Tertiaries, two by two, we form the class of 
Sub-Tertiaries, consisting of dark orange, dark green, and dark purple. 
It will now be easy to tell how each of these is formed, and in what pro- 
portions each of the Primaries enters into the combination. For ex- 
ample : dark orange is composed of its two adjoining Tertiaries, russet 
and citrine — 21 parts of russet, and 19 of citrine. But, as has been be- 
fore shown, 

Russet =red 10, yellow 3, blue 8, and 

Citrine =red 5, yellow 6, blue 8. 

Therefore, adding together the two, 

Dark orange =red 15, yellow 9, blue 16 ; the whole making 40. 

* These orange-reds are familiarly termed Scarlets, as the orange- 
yellows are termed Buff's. 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 105 

The pupil, being familiar with this step, should next explain, in a sim- 
ilar manner, the formation of dark green and dark purple. 

It will be seen, from the Scale, that each Primary color enters into all 
the colors embraced within its own circle and the circles on each side 
of it ; and that, also, crossing the centre of the Scale, it enters into the 
Tertiary or Sub-Tertiary directly opposite. Thus, yellow enters into all 
the colors of the Scale except blue, purple-blue, purple, purple-red, and 
red, and some of the grays and some of the maroons. Crossing the 
centre of the Scale, it enters into dark purple. 

Into what colors does red enter? 

Into what colors does blue enter ? 

iv. tones: embracing tints and shades op colors. 

Whatever we take as the standard of intensity or purity 
for any color, it is evident that the particular color assumed 
as the standard may receive numerous modifications by 
mixing with white (or diluting with water) until the light- 
er tints thus formed shall fade away and be lost in white- 
ness itself. Thus, suppose carmine, of a certain degree of 
depth or intensity, to be the standard color for pure red, 
and that 6 grains of this carmine cover a square inch of 
surface, so as to give to this surface the true standard 
color. Next take 5 grains of carmine, and mix with 1 
grain of pure white, to cover the same extent of surface, 
and this will give a tint of pure red. Next mix 4 grains 
of carmine and 2 of white, to cover the same extent of sur- 
face, and we shall have another tint of red. Three grains 
of carmine and 3 of white will give still another tint ; 2 of 
carmine and 4 of white a still fainter tint ; 1 of carmine and 
5 of white a tint of red which is barely perceptible. We 
have supposed the- standard of pure red to be placed, on 
the Chromatic Scale, at the centre of the red circle, and on 
the radius extending outward have marked off the grad- 
ually diminishing tints — the figures 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, denoting 
the gradually diminishing proportions of pure red. For 
greater distinctness, however, we have represented only 
the standard red, and two of its tints, on the Chart. 

In the same manner we may suppose that the yellow, 
the blue, the orange, the green, etc., have their normal or 
ruling tones, or standards, at the centres of their respective 
circles, and that from these points each is gradually tinted 

E 2 



106 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

off to the circumference, where its colors fade away in tints 
scarcely perceptible. 

But, as opposed to this tinting, each of the standard col- 
ors of red, orange-red, orange, yellow, green, etc., may be, 
in a similar manner, mixed with black — in gradually dimin- 
ishing proportions of color, and gradually increasing pro- 
portions of black — until the color is lost in blackness itself. 
Thus, at the centre of the red, on the Chromatic Scale, sup- 
pose, as before, that the normal red is placed. Mark off 
five divisions on the radius extending toward the centre of 
the Chromatic Scale. Suppose that the first division is 
covered by a mixture of 5 parts of red and 1 part of black ; 
the second by 4 parts of red and 2 parts of black; the third 
by 3 parts of red and 3 parts of black ; the fourth by 2 
parts of red and 4 parts of black ; and the fifth by 1 part 
of red and 5 parts of black. We thus obtain what are 
called the different shades of pure red ; .and, in a similar 
manner, the shades of all the colors are found. The tints 
and the shades of a color are called, collectively, its tones. 
The tones of any one color (embracing its tints and shades) 
may thus be supposed to be found on some one single ra- 
dius of the Chromatic Scale — the tints of the colors repre- 
sented around the outer portions of the Scale being found 
outside of the circle (A) that passes through the centres of 
the six large circles, and the shades being found inside of 
that circle. 

But each of the Tertiaries and Sub-Tertiaries — although 
their standard colors are much darker than the standards 
of the Primaries and Secondaries — has both its tints and 
shades also, and the . dividing line between them may be 
supposed to be the centres of the oval figures containing 
their names. So, likewise, of the still darker coloi's, the 
maroons, the browns, and the grays. If, then, each of the 
twenty-one norcnal or ruling colors represented on the 
Chromatic Scale has five tints and five shades that may be 
easily distinguished by the eye, we shall have not only 
twenty-one normal colors, but 210 distinguishable tints and 
shades of these colors, without enumerating their numerous 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 107 

hues. But we have no names for all these tints and shades, 
nor is it necessary, nor desirable, that we should have. We 
may cali carmine the standard red, and locate it on the di- 
viding line between its tints and its shades ; and we may 
call the tints light reds, and the shades dark reds. Occa- 
sionally we give a name to some uncertain tint or shade of 
a color ; as, for example, we speak of rose color, which is 
merely one of the uncertain tints of pure red or carmine ; 
of strmo color, which is a light tint of pure yellow ; of 
mazarine-blue, which is a shade of purple-blue ; and of am- 
ber, which is so dark a shade of orange-yellow, or dark or- 
ange, that it is often classed with the browns. 

V. HUES OF COLORS. 

All mixed colors (which include all the colors except 
the Primaries) may vary greatly in their mixtures, so as to 
present a great variety of hues of each. Thus, for example, 
suppose, at the central part of the orange-red, where Ave 
have placed the hyphen of the word, is found the standard 
for this color, or, as it is usually called, scarlet. Now as 
we pass to the left along the figures to 1, we may suppose 
that the yellow diminishes and the red increases ; but as 
we pass to the right, to 9 or 10, the red diminishes and the 
yellow increases. In other words, the yellow may grad- 
ually increase in proportion from 1 to 10, at which latter 
point the yellow is sufficient, mixed with the normal red, 
to produce the normal or standard orange. Thus we may 
have many hues of orange-red or scarlet ; and, in like man- 
ner, many hues of all the mixed colors. 

Yet the scarlets themselves (or orange-reds), as will be 
seen by looking at the Chromatic Scale, may be considered 
as merely different hues of orange ; that is, those orange 
colors in which the red preponderates over the yellow; 
and in a similar manner the buffs (or orange-yellows) may 
be considered as those hues of orange in which the yellow 
preponderates over the red. 



108 MANUAL OF INFOEMATION 

Great Number of Distinguishable Colors. 

Thus we may have twenty hues of orange, easily distin- 
guishable, the one from the other, by an ordinary eye — 
these hues approaching, through the orange-reds, to pure 
red at one extreme, and, through the orange-yellows, to 
pure yellow at the other. In the same manner we may as- 
sign twenty hues to green, and twenty hues to purple. 
These will give to the three Secondary colors (including 
the Sub-Secondaries) sixty hues in all — all easily distin- 
guishable. 

But every one of these hues may have both tints and 
shades, as it approaches the centre, or the circumference, 
of the Chromatic Scale. If we concede five tints and five 
shades to each hue, these sixty hues will give us six hund- 
red easily discernible colors! The three Tertiaries will 
give us an additional list of six hundred colors, and the 
Sub-Tertiaries another six hundred. Giving to red, blue, 
and yellow, five tints and five shades each, we shall thus 
make up a list of one thousand eight hundred and thirty 
easily distinguishable colors, without including the semi- 
neutral maroons, browns, and grays, which are, really, by 
far the most abundant colors in nature. It would not be 
at all extravagant to assign to the latter three the same 
number of colors as to the three Secondaries — six hundred 
in all. Our list would thus foot up the number of 'two 
thousand four hundred and thirty colors, all of which, we 
have no doubt, might be easily distinguished as separate 
and distinct from each other. 

To show that these estimates are not extravagant, we 
will state, that we visited a wholesale worsted store in 
New York city, and that we there found a list of more 
than two thousand worsted colors alone ; and we were as- 
sured that they had all the worsteds to match them. We 
examined great numbers of the very large lists of the hues, 
tints, and shades of orange worsted, and found no difficulty 
in distinguishing between them. "When the orange hues, 
tints, and shades are so numerous, it is not surprising that 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 109 

people differ so much in their views of what constitutes a 
standard orange, a standard scarlet, or a standard buff. 

VI. COMPLEMENTARY COLORS. 

Under the head of " General Principles of Light, Dark- 
ness, and Color," we briefly explained that when two col- 
ors can be taken in such proportions as to produce white, 
each color is called the Complementary of the other. Now 
red, yellow, and blue, tfdcen in the proportions of 3 parts 
of yellow, 5 parts of red, and 8 parts of blue, and of the 
purity of these colors in the solar spectrum, neutralize each 
other ; that is, produce white* Hence, if we first com- 
bine the yellow and the blue, their product, which is green, 
must be the complementary of red, and red must also be 
the complementary of green. 

Exercises on the Chromatic Scale. 

What is the complementary of red ? Of yellow? Of blue? Explain 
the reason in each case. 

(Note. — The complementary of any color on the Scale is the one 
directly opposite to it, on the same diameter, and can easily be learned, 
and recalled at any time by remembering the arrangement of the Scale. 
The Table before given also names the complementaries. Aided by the 
Chromatic Scale only, each pupil should not only explain the comple- 
mentaries, as in the following exercises, but also write out a Table of the 
colors, like that given on page 103.) 

What is the complementary of orange-red ? Greenish-blue. 

What is the complementary of greenish-blue ? Orange-red. Why ? 

Explanation. — Orange-red =red 10+yellow 3; and 

Greenish-blue = yellow 3, blue 16 ; and the two 

=red 10+yellow 6 +blue 16. But these 

last proportions are equivalent to red 5, yellow 3, and blue 8, which are 

the proportions in which the three Primaries neutralize each other ; that 

is, combine to produce white. Thus it is shown that if orange-red and 

* It must be borne in mind, however, that, in point of fact, we cannot 
produce a white paint by mixing those pigments or paints whose colors 
are complementary. Thus, although the groups red and green, orange 
and blue, yellow and purple, should, according to the theory, produce 
white when respectively mixed in their proper proportions, yet we know 
that they produce a gray, approaching nearer to white as the colors are 
purer. The principles of the combinations and effects of colors must, 
however, be based upon some standard, and none better can be taken 
than the pure colors of the solar spectrum. 



110 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

greenish-blue be combined they produce white, and therefore the one is 
the complementary of the other. 

In a- similar manner, look at the Chromatic Scale, and name the com- 
plementary of orange-yellow, and explain the principle. 

Of greenish-yellow. Of greenish-blue. Of purple-blue. Of purple-red. 

In a similar manner, name the complementary of russet, and explain 
the principle. 

Explanation. — In order to explain that dark green is the complement- 
ary of russet, we first show that dark green is composed of 
red 10, yellow 9, blue 24 ; 

Russet is composed of red 10, yellow 3, blue 8 ; 

The two equaling red 20, yellow 12, blue 32. But these are in 
the same proportions as red 5, yellow 3, blue 8, which are the neu- 
tralizing proportions of the three Primaries. 

In a similar manner name the complementary of dark orange and 
explain the principle. 

Of citrine. Of dark green. Of olive. Of dark purple. Let it be 
observed that, as the combining figures of the three Primaries make up 
the number 16, so any two complementary colors, which represent the 
equivalent combinations, must add up the same number 16, or multiples 
of 16. Thus, each couplet of primary and secondary complementaries 
forms the number 16 ; each couplet of the sub-secondary complement- 
aries forms the number 32 ; and each couplet of tertiary and sub-ter- 
tiary complementaries forms the number 64. 

VII. THE HARMONY OF COLORS. 

As light, which is the natural stimulus .of the healthy- 
eye, and more agreeable to it than any single color, is com- 
posed of the three Primary colors in certain proportions — 
that is, in such proportions as to neutralize each other — 
light may be considered a perfect harmony, or union of 
all colors. 

From the principle herein developed it is apparent (and 
experience proves it) that if a single color, red, for exam- 
ple, be alone presented to the eye, an uneasy feeling is soon 
produced in that organ. What is then needed to soothe 
the eye is the presentation of such other color or colors as 
shall neutralize the red — that is, which, if combined with it, 
would produce white. Yellow and blue, in their respective 
proportions, will produce this effect, or, what amounts to 
the same thing, their equivalent green. Hence, if two 
colors can be used to harmonize with red, the two must 
be yellow and blue ; or, if one only can be taken, it must 
be green. 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. Ill 

We thus obtain this first general rule in the harmony of 
colors. The single color that harmonizes best with any 
given color, is the complementary of the given color. It 
will now be easy to answer the following questions, and 
assign the reasons. 

"What single color harmonizes best with standard yellow ? (Standard 
purple.) Why? Because 13 parts of standard purple added to 3 parts 
of yellow produce white. Show why 13 parts of purple and 3 of yellow 
produce white. (See Div. VI.) 

What single color harmonizes best with blue? (Orange.) Why? 
With orange-red ? With orange-yellow ? With greenish-yellow ? With 
greenish blue ? With purple-blue ? With purple-red. 

What with russet, citrine, and olive ? 

Observe that each of these Tertiary colors has two complementaries, 
as shown in the Table, page 103. Explain why either green, or dark 
green, is the complementary of russet. The same of the other two 
Tertiaries. 

Harmonic Effects of placing Side by Side Colors that 
are Complementary. 

If two complementary colors, blue and orange, for ex- 
ample, be placed side by side, it is found that each appears 
brighter, or more intense, than when viewed separately.* 
Thus the complementary colors are found not only to har- 
monize best with each other in their combined pleasurable 
effects upon the organ of sight, but also to contrast more 
strongly with each other than with any other colors. The 
following has been adduced as the cause of this effect. 

Every colored object, when viewed alone, reflects not 
only the particular rays which, by being the most numer- 
ous, designate the color of the object, but also a portion of 
all kinds of colored rays. Thus blue, viewed by itself, re- 
flects some orange rays, by which its blue may be supposed 
to be modified or lessened, so far as the orange rays neu- 
tralize their proper proportion of blue rays. The orange 
also, when viewed by itself, reflects some blue rays, by 

* The supposition is that the two colors are either of the normal 
standard, or of the same tone : that is, of corresponding depth of tint 
or shade. If the colors be not of the same tone, the lighter tone will 
appear still lighter, and the darker tone will appear still darker — that 
is, of a deeper shade. 



112 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

which the orange is, in a similar manner, modified or di- 
minished in intensity. 

Now suppose the blue and the orange placed side by 
side. What will become of the orange rays which the blue 
reflects ? They will be overwhelmed — virtually extinguish- 
ed — by the more intense rays which the orange itself re- 
flects, just as the light of a candle is overwhelmed by the 
full glare of the noon-day sun. The blue, thus deprived of 
the force of its orange rays, will appear of a more intense 
blue than before. Upon the same principle, the orange, by 
its juxtaposition with blue, will appear of a more intense 
orange than before. The same principle will apply to all 
the colors when arranged as complementaries. They -then 
produce their greatest effect, and present the most striking 
contrasts.* The striking effects of these harmonies are 
best shown by taking circles of the three primary colors, 
red, blue, and yellow, and surrounding them with broad 
rings of their complementaries, as is seen under the head 
of" Harmonic Complementary Colors" on the Chart. Here, 
on circular, green, orange, and purple grounds, are pasted 
smaller circles of their respective complementaries, red, blue, 
and yellow. Each color, according to the principles stated, 
should be rendered the more brilliant and intense by this 
juxtaposition ; and this effect we believe will be apparent 
to the eye of almost any person. But, to render the effect 
more apparent, the same green, orange, and purple grounds 
are placed to the right of the others, and on them are pasted 
precisely the same red, blue, and yellow colors as before, 
for they are cut from the same sheets of colored paper ; but 
they are here so arranged that the contiguous colors shall 
not be complementaries. The six complementary colors on 

* It is owing to this same principle that the dapplings of two comple- 
mentary colors produce effects in painting so much more clear and brill- 
iant than when uniform tints are produced by mixing the two colors. 
White and black are, practically, complementaries. If they be mixed, 
they produce a gray — of little or no brilliancy, as is seen in an ordinary 
lithographic print ; but if the black be dappled in, as in the finest steel 
engravings, the contrasts are the most striking, and the effect the most 
brilliant. 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 113 

the left are now plainly seen to be more brilliant than the 
same six colors on the right. 

The teacher must constantly bear in mind that it is im- 
possible, as before stated, to give to ordinary paper the 
same brilliancy of coloring that may be given to some oth- 
er materials, and especially to silks. If the complementary 
colors on the left were richly-colored silks, the brilliancy 
of effect would be absolutely painful to the eye. 

Another explanation of the effect produced by placing 
side by side complementary colors, is the well-known fact 
that the eye, by looking intently at any color for a few mo- 
ments, acquires a tendency to see its complementary. Thus, 
place a bright red wafer on white paper, and look at the 
wafer intently for a few moments, and the space around 
the wafer will assume a greenish tinge ; or cast the eye 
from the wafer upon a white surface at some distance from 
it, and the figure of a light green wafer will be seen there. 
In the same manner, if the eye look intently for some time 
upon a green wafer on white paper, the surrounding space 
will assume a reddish tinge. Hence, when red and green 
are placed side by side, each must give to the other an ad- 
ditional depth and brightness of color.* 

Exercises. — If a silk merchant wished to make a red silk appear to the 
best advantage, what color would he place beside it? (A green silk.) 
Why? If an orange silk, what color should he place beside it? If a 
bright yellow silk ? A green silk ? A blue silk ? A purple silk ? A 
jmrple-red silk ? An orange-red? An orange-yellow ? A greenish-yelloiv? 

A russet silk? (Either green or dark green.) A citrine? An olive? 

* But why does the eye, after looking intently for some time at any 
one color, acquire a tendency to see its opposite or complementary color? 
The following physiological explanation may be given of this remarka- 
ble phenomenon. The eye is supposed to secrete the principles of light, 
and to retain them in a latent state ; and when any single color is pre- ' 
6ented to the eye, it is supposed so to act on that organ as to call forth 
the latent principle which is needed to restore the equilibrium of white 
light. Thus red light is supposed so to act upon the organ as to call 
forth the latent principle of green light, the latter being what is needed 
to harmonize the red. It seems to be one of those wonderful compen- 
sating provisions of nature which is designed to prevent injury to the or- 
gan. 



114 MANUAL OF INFOEMATION 

But although the complementary colors, when placed 
side by side in broad stripes, impart additional brilliancy 
to each other, yet if they are so intimately mingled (and in 
their due proportions) that the eye can not well distinguish 
each separately, they will to a considerable extent neutral- 
ize each other, and, tending to white, give to the mixture a 
grayish hue. Thus, if threads of red and green be inter- 
woven in a carpet, hi the proportions of 5 of red and 11 of 
green — or, what is nearly the same, 1 of red and 2 of green 
— a gray will be produced. If the coloring material used 
were w&pure as in the solar spectrum, the color produced 
would be nearly Avhite. But if the red and the green be in 
broad stripes in the carpet, each will appear more brilliant 
than when viewed apart. 

We have said that if any one color be given, the single 
color that best harmonizes with it is its complementary. 
Yet the complementaries contrast so strongly, and are so 
vividly bright, especially those of the Primaries, that the 
eye soon wearies of them; and if they are to be constantly 
before the eye, a more agreeable effect is produced by the 
interposition of a third color which partakes of both ex- 
tremes of the contrast, or which is placed intermediate be- 
tween them on the Chromatic Scale. Thus blue and or- 
ange, when placed so as to contrast with each other, be- 
come reconciled, softened in effect, and better harmonized 
to the eye, when a broken color, partaking of both, or one 
intermediate between the two, is interposed. Thus equal 
surfaces of blue and orange would be better harmonized to 
the eye by the interposition of a surface of greenish-yellow 
or purple-red about equal to both the others. Yellow or 
purple interposed would produce a similar effect, but not so 
good as the others. The figures attached to the colors on 
the Scale give their respective harmonizing as well as com- 
bining proportions. Thus orange, blue, and purple-red har- 
monize best in the proportions of 8 of orange, 8 of blue, 
and 18 of purple-red ;* and if these three colors were to be 

* In all such statements reference is had to the normal or standard tones 
of the colors; and if either of the colors used be below the standard — that 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 115 

combined in a dress, their harmony would best be consult- 
ed by having some regard to these proportions. 

Exercises. — Take all the colors in their complementary grouping, 
and, by referring to the scale, tell what third colors best soften and har- 
monize them to the eye. The third color will be either of the two in- 
termediate between them on the scale. The following table gives the 
grouping of the complementaries, and the third colors which best soften 
and harmonize them, yet this table is not half so good as the scale it- 
self. When the arrangement of the colors on the Chromatic Scale is 
once learned, the mind can easily recall all these harmonies. 

(Red ), ,, • i u (Orange-Yellow, or 

JGreen \ best harmonized b 7 jpurple-Blue. 

(Orange-Red \ u „ C( (Citrine or Yellow, or 

(Greenish-Blue j (Purple, or Dark Purple. 

(Orange 1 «< «< «< (Greenish- Yellow, or 

"(Blue j t Purple-Red. 

( Orange-Yellow \ u << u (Red, or Russet, or 

(Purple-Blue ) (Green, or Dark Green. 

(Yellow 1 " " " jOrange-Red, or 

^Purple > (Greenish-Blue. 

(Greenish-Yellow) 4( „ (t ( Orange or Dark Orange, or 

(Purple-Red | . tP>lue or Olive. 

(Citrine 1 " " " (Orange-Red, or 

^Purple ) (Greenish-Blue. 

(Olive \ u << ti j Purple-Red, or 

\Orange > (Greenish-Yellow. 

(Russet \ u (l i] (Orange-Yellow, or 

(Green ) (Purple-Blue. 

Etc. 

Yet it is evident that any two complementary colors are 
not perfectly harmonized by any one additional color, but 
that a complete harmony requires two additional colors. 
Thus, if we take red and green, although they are complete 
harmonies, yet their brilliant and harsh contrast requires 
modification. Orange-yellow softens their severity, but re- 
quires its own complementary purple-blue to restore the 
harmony which has thus been broken ; that is, for all the 
colors to present the proportions required in the produc- 
tion of white light. Therefore the coniplenientaries group- 
is some tint of it — additional extent of surface should be used to com- 
pensate for the deficiency. Thus, if the third tint of orange should be 
used (see Chromatic Scale and Div. IV. ), containing only half the or- 
ange found in the standard, a doubk surface of orange should be con- 
tained in the dress. 



116 MANUAL OF INFOKMATION 

ed in the left-hand column of the foregoing table require 
the two colors in the right-hand column to soften and fully 
harmonize them. For the same reason, if the complement- 
ary groups in the right-hand column were to be softened, 
and then harmonized, both the colors in the left-hand col- 
umn would be required for that purpose. 

Taking the principles here developed as a basis, the 
teacher may now form a great variety of questions as to 
the proper selection and proportions of colors in dress, in 
the paintings of the interiors of rooms, in paper-hangings, 
and in carpets and tapestry. 

VIII. DISCORDANT EFFECTS OF THE JUXTAPOSITION OF 
NON-COMPLEMENTARY COLOES. 

Two colors of equal or nearly equal intensity (each one 
being of its normal tone, or both of corresponding tones) 
placed side by side, are said to be discordant when each pro- 
duces such an effect upon the other as to cause the two to 
differ more than they would when viewed separately— that 
is, to separate them farther from each other in composition 
than in the order in which they are arranged on the Chro- 
matic Scale. Thus it is found that if orange and green, both 
of which contain yellow, are placed side by side, the orange 
will thereby assume more of a reddish tinge, and the green 
more of a blue tinge — the former appearing to the eye as 
an ovange-red, and the latter as a greenish- blue. By this 
juxtaposition of orange and green each 'of the colors will 
seem to lose a portion of its yellow, and thus to be sepa- 
rated farther in their composition than they really are, 
thus inclining farther apart on the Chromatic Scale. 

It will now be easy, by keeping in mind the arrange- 
ment of the colors on the Scale, to tell the effects of the 
juxtaposition of any two of them, of the standard purity ; 
for each will thereby partially assume the hue of the color 
next to it on the Scale, on the outside of the two colors — 
not between them. In the following groupings, the effects 
denoted in the right-hand column will be produced. The 
teacher should point out the groupings on the Scale, and 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 



117 



let the pupil name the results. Thus, for example, the 
teacher points out red and orange, and asks what will be 
the result if these two colors are placed side by side in 
a dress, or in a carpet, etc., without any other colors to 
relieve or harmonize them. According to the rule, the pu- 
pil will see that the red will incline to purple, and the or- 
ange to yellow — the red becoming a purplish-red, and the 
orange a yellow-orange. 



tct . (Red inc 
^•"[Orange < 


lines to Purple. 


' " Dark Yellow, or Citrine 


9 (Red ' ' 
A (Yellow ■ 


' " Purple. 


' " Green. 


o (Red « 
d * "[Blue 


' " Orange. 


' " Green. 


a (Red ' 
*' (Purple < 


' " Orange. 


1 " Blue. 


_ (Orange ' 

fc t Yellow « 


' " Red. 


' " Bright Green. 


c ^Orange ' 
°- (Green « 


1 " Bright Red. 


' " Blue. 


„ (Orange ' 
'• "[Purple * 


' " Yellow. 


' " Blue. 


o (Yellow ' 
e> JGreen 


' " Bright Orange. 


1 " Blue. 


Q (Yellow ' 


' " Orange. 


a> "[Blue 


' " Purple. 


, n (Green - ' 
1U - \Blue 


' " Yellow. 


' " Purple. 


,, f Green f 
(Purple ' 


« " Yellow. 


' " Red. 


12. j? iue , ; 

(Purple ' 


' ' ' Green. 


1 " Red. 



The cause of the foregoing effects maybe explained upon 
the principle before stated, that when any two colors of 
similar tone are viewed in juxtaposition, each produces the 
effect of adding its complementary to the other.* 

* It must continually be borne in mind, that in all these cases the two 
colors are of the same, or nearly the same, tone ; that is, either of the 
standard intensity, or equally removed from it in tint or shade. But if 
one of the colors be of a deep shade, and the other of a light tint, the 
former will appear still deeper, and the latter still lighter, by the effect 
of the contrast. Therefore, a very deep blue, when placed beside a very 
light yellow, may make the latter appear so much lighter as to destroy 
the complementary effects, and, as it makes the yellow pale, to give it 



118 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

Suppose that, in a certain painting, it is wished to have 
orange largely predominate, and yet to represent, in their 
purity, and of the normal standard, the colors red, purple, 
scarlet, yellow, and green. Now, first, what will be the ef- 
fects, in the painting, of putting all the colors in of exactly 
their normal standard ? Ans. The red will appear too pur- 
ple, the purple too blue, the scarlet too red, the yellow too 
green, and the green too blue. How, then, must the col- 
ors be changed in hue, to make the representation accu- 
rate ? Ans. The reds must be more scarlet, the purple 
more red, the scarlet more orange, the yellow more or- 
ange, and the green more yellow. 

Make similar suppositions as to other colors ; and, on 
the supposition that red, yellow, green, blue, or purple is to 
preponderate in large proportion, require the pupils to tell 
the effects. 

It will now be easy to see what third color is needed to 
harmonize any one of the foregoing groups given in the 
table ; for it is evident it must be that color which, when 
combined with the two given colors, will be their comple- 
mentary; that is, such color as, when allied to the two, 
will give the requisite proportions for white light. Let us 
take, for example, the first group, red and orange. What 
third color will best harmonize them ? It must be the one 
opposite to them on the Chromatic Scale ; that is, greenish- 
blue. If this be correct, red, orange, and greenish-blue, 
when combined, must give the proportions of white light. 
We will try the combination : 

Red. Yellow. Blue. 

Red =5 

Orange =5 3 

Greenish-Blue— 3 16 
The whole equal 10 6 16, which is equiva- 
lent to red 5, yellow 3, blue 8 — the proportions in which 
the three Primaries combine to produce white. Therefore 
the color which best harmonizes any two discordant colors 

almost a greenish tinge ; for, the paler a yellow is, the greener it ap- 
pears. See the next division — " Contrast of Tone." 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 119 

is their complementary, which is found on the opposite side 
of the Chromatic Scale, intermediately between them. 

Let the teacher now take the same groupings as before, 
and require the pupil to tell, from the Chromatic Scale, 
what third color is required to harmonize each group. 

Red and Orange harmonized by Greenish-Blue. 



Red and Yellow 
Red and Blue 
Red and Purple 
Orange and Yellow 
Orange and Green 
Orange and Purple 
Yellow and Green 
Yellow and Blue 
Green and Blue 
Green and Purple 
Blue and Purple 



Blue. 

Yellow. 

Greenish- Yellow. 

Purple-Blue. 

Purple. 

Green. 

Purple-Red. 

Red. 

Orange-Red. 

Orange. 

Orange-Yellow. 



The Tertiary colors are harmonized on the same princi- 
ples. Although their harmonies with each other are the 
least striking of all the harmonies, and require a cultivated 
taste to be appreciated, yet these are the harmonies which 
most prevail in nature, as is seen in the boundless variety 
of subdued colors in the foliage and trunks of trees, in 
grasses, in mosses and lichens, in rocks, in earths, in the 
plumage of birds, and the coverings of animals. 

But the Tertiaries not only harmonize with each other 
on the principles before explained, but also each pair har- 
monizes, and in a more striking manner, as may be seen by 
the Chromatic Scale, with its complementary primary. 
Thus russet and citrine, having orange for a common con- 
stituent, are harmonized by blue ; russet and olive, having 
purple for a common constituent, are harmonized by yel- 
low; and olive and citrine are harmonized by red. The 
teacher should require his pupils to point out these various 
harmonies. 

Contrast Of Tone. — We have noticed the intensifying 
effects of placing side by side complementary colors of coi*- 
responding tone, and also the change in hue produced by 
the juxtaposition of allied or analogous colors that are not 
complementary. But a third and still different effect is 



120 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

produced by the juxtaposition of different tones of the same 
color, and also "by the juxtaposition of different tones of 
different colors. 

Thus, if we look simultaneously upon two stripes of dif- 
ferent tones of the same color, placed side by side, such as 
a deep red and a very light or pale red, the pale red will 
be made to appear still paler by the effect of the contrast, 
and the deep red will appear of a still deeper or darker 
hue. The effects will be the most apparent where the two 
stripes border on each other. 

But even if the two colors are not different tones of the 
same scale, even if they are different tones of different 
colors, like a very deep red and a very pale yellow, the 
same effects will be produced, for that which is deep will 
appear still deeper, and that which is light will appear still 
lighter by the effect of the juxtaposition. This is what is 
called contrast of tone, and is an important principle affect- 
ing the arrangement of colors in dress. 

The causes of this contrast of tone are similar to those 
explained under the head of the "Harmonic effects of 
Complementary Colors." 

IX. ARRANGEMENT OP COLORS WITH WHITE. 

All colors that are not too deep gain in brilliancy and 
effect by their juxtaposition with white ; and, as a general 
rule, white placed beside a color heightens its tone, or gives 
it greater intensity — that is, more color. Although the 
cause of this effect embraces the same principle as before 
explained when treating of complementary colors, it may 
be well to present it anew here. 

Suppose red and. white placed in juxtaposition. The 
white rays which the red reflects, and which diminish the 
brilliancy of the red when the red is viewed alone, are over- 
whelmed — virtually destroyed in effect — by the more in- 
tense white rays when the white is placed beside the red. 
The effect of the juxtaposition must therefore be to render 
the red more brilliant, by thus destroying the effect of the 
white rays which before diminished its brilliancy. More- 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 121 

over, as the adjoining white is rendered slightly greenish 
by the complementary of the red, this gives additional 
brilliancy to the red. 

As the depth of tone of a color has a great influence 
upon the effect of its association with white, the following 
may be considered the best assortments with white, in the 
order of their greatest beauty: 1st, light blue and white; 
2d, rose and white ; 3d, deep yellow and white ; 4th, bright 
green and white ; 5th, violet and white ; 6th, orange and 
white. Dark blue, dark red, very dark green, and dark 
purple, are far less agreeable with white than the lighter 
tones of these colors ; for the contrast may be so great that 
they will appear almost black. As yellow, on the contrary, 
is the color nearest approaching to light, it must be of its 
normal or deepest tone to produce its best effect when 
associated with white. 

Let the pupil now tell the double effect, both on the white and on the 
color, of the following groupings. 

1. Red and white. 2. Orange and white. 3. Yellow and white. 4. 
Green and white. 5. Blue and white. G. Purple and white. 7. Black 
and white. 

Explanation, thus : When red and white are associated, a slight green- 
ish tinge is given to the white by the addition to it of the complementary 
of the red,* while the red is rendered more brilliant and deeper, both by 
losing the effects of its own white rays, and by having its complementary 
added to the white. 

Explain also why black is rendered more intensely black by being 
associated with white. 

X. ARRANGEMENT OF COLORS WITH BLACK. 

A black surface, by being placed in juxtaposition with 
a light-colored or luminous surface, is not only rendered 
blacker than before, by the force of contrast of tone, but 
it is likewise slightly tinted by the complementary of the 
contiguous color, although it may be difficult to distinguish 
this tint when the black is a deep black.f Thus a black 

^ * It is difficult to observe this effect upon the white tmless the con- 
tiguous color is viewed intently for a few moments ; because the ex- 
ceeding brilliancy of the white tends to render the sight insensible to the 
complementary which the colored body throws upon it. 

t From the principle here involved it is evident that when black is 

F 



122 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

surface placed beside red must be slightly tinted with 
green. On the other hand, the white rays which the red 
emits will produce their greatest effects, and thus tend to 
lower the tone of the red — that is, to cause it to assume a 
lighter tint — the same as though the red had received an 
addition* of white light. Black, therefore, lowers the tone 
of any color contiguous to it. Yet when black is placed 
beside a luminous color, like orange, the effect of contrast 
of tone, by causing the orange to ajDpear lighter than be- 
fore, thereby renders it, by its very whiteness, all the more 
conspicuous. This would be very apt to be mistaken for 
a heightening of the color of the orange. 

Let the pupil now tell the double effect — both on the black and on 
the color — of the following groupings : 

1. Eed and black. 2. Orange and black.* 3. Yellow and black, i. 
Green and black.* 5. Blue and black. 6. Purple and black.* 

Black is preferable to white in an arrangement with red and yellow, 
or orange and yellow ; but it is inferior to white when associated with 
red and blue, red and violet, orange and blue, orange and violet, yellow 
and blue, green and blue, green and violet. 

XI. ARRANGEMENT OF COLORS WITH GRAY. 

A normal or standard gray, being a mixture of white and 
black, and intermediate between the two, will be more af- 
fected than either of them by being associated with colors ; 
for it is not so dark but that it may be tinged by the com- 
plementaries of the colors ; and this very tinging of the 
gray will make the associated colors appear the brighter. 
Gray may be said, therefore, to give additional brilliancy 
and purity to all the lighter or brighter colors, and, to 
some extent, even to the darker colors. 

contiguous to a very deep color which has a light or brilliant comple- 
mentary, the black may be weakened. Thus, take deep blue and black. 
As the blue has the effect to give an orange tinge to the black, the black 
may thereby be lightened up, or weakened. 

* In the case of orange and black, green and black, and purple and 
black, it is evident that as the orange, although lowered in tone, is placed 
in strong contrast with black, it appears more yelhiv ; that as the green 
is lowered in tone, it also must slightly incline to yellow ; and that as 
the purple becomes lighter, it must appear redder. 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 123 

Let the pupil now tell the double effect— both on the gray and on the 
color — of the following groupings : 

1. Red and gray. 2. Orange and gray. 3. Yellow and gray 4 
Green and gray. 5. Blue and gray. 6. Purple and gray. 7. Crimson 
and gray. 8. Scarlet and gray. 9. Buff and gray. 

Gray associates better than black with orange and violet, green and 
blue, green and violet. 

Certain drapers gave to a calico printer some cloths of single colors- 
red, purple, and blue— upon which they wished gray figures to be print- 
i u u ^e completion of the work, they complained that upon the red 
cloths he had put green patterns, that upon the purple he had put green- 
ish-yeUow patterns, and that upon the blue they were orange-brown. 
What was the probable cause of the difficulty ? 

The nearer colors are to being complenientaries of each 
other, the better they associate together. Thus red and 
yellow, red and blue, orange and green, orange and pur- 
ple, are passable; but red and orange, red and purple, 
green and blue, blue and purple, and other colors nearly 
analogous, do not assort well together. If, therefore, any 
colors that do not assort well together must be used in a 
dress, in the decoration of a room, or in a painting, some 
other color, or white, or black, or gray, may be used, in ac- 
cordance with the principles already illustrated, to harmo- 
nize them. Thus red and orange, which injure each other, 
may be separated to advantage by their intermediate com- 
plementary, or by white, by gray, or by black. When any 
two colors assort badly together, it is always advantageous 
to separate them by white ; but if the two colors are de- 
cidedly luminous, as is the case with red and orange, or- 
ange and yellow, etc., black is preferable to either gray or 
white, as it presents a better contrast than either of the 
others. Although gray does not associate as well as black 
with red and orange, it has the advantage of producing a 
less crude effect than white. 

XII. MODIFICATIONS IN COLORS PRODUCED BY COLORED 
LIGHTS FALLING UPON THEM. 

A series of interesting exercises might be written out by 
the pupil, on the effect produced upon colored fabrics or 
other colored objects in a room, by having colored light 
fall upon them : for example, when the colored light is occa- 



124 • MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

sioned by stained or colored windows, or colored curtains, 
or when it is reflected from the colored wash or paper of 
the walls. Thus, in some of our city churches which have 
stained Gothic windows, it is curious to observe the effects 
produced by the light transmitted through the green, red, 
blue, or yellow glass. It will be found that when the blue 
light falls upon a delicate pink face, it will give it a very 
disagreeable purple hue ; if it fall upon a face which is de- 
cidedly yellow, it will give it a sickly pale green tinge. 
The laws of the combinations of colors, as learned from the 
Chromatic Scale, will give the principles of all the effects 
thus produced. The following table will furnish examples ; 
but the pupils should tell the results from the Scale alone : 

Red rays falling on Black make it appear Purple-T5la,ck. 



It 


it 


"White 


it 


Red. 


(( 


tt 


Eed 


a 


Redder. 


it 


(< 


Orange 


It 


Scarlet. 


It 


a 


Yellow 


tt 


Orange. 


<( 


(( 


Deep Green 


tt 


Red-Black. 


(( 


<( 


Light Green 


tt 


Reddish-Gray. 


it 


« 


Deep Blue 


a 


Violet. 


tt 


tt 


Light Blue 


a 


Purple-Blue. 


it 


tt 


Violet 


a 


Purple. 


(( 


a 


Purple 


a 


Crimson. 


Orange rays 


falling 


on Black 


a 


Maroon, or Chocolate. 


a 


" 


White 


it 


Orange. 


a 


" 


Orange 


a 


More vivid. 


tt 


" 


Red 


tt 


Scarlet. 


it 


a 


Yellow 


tt 


Orange-Yellow. 


tt 


tt 


Light Green 


a 


Yellow-Green. 


«( 


a 


Deep Green 


a 


Rusty-Green. 


M 


a 


Light Blue 


it 


Orange-Gray. 


it 


it 


Deep Blue 


a 


Slightly Orange-Gray. 


it 


tt 


Violet 


a 


Red-Maroon. 


a 


<( 


Purple 


a 


Orange-Maroon. 



In a similar manner go through with the effects produced by yellow 
rays, green rays, blue rays, and purple rays, etc. 

XIII. OF COLORS IN CLOTHING. 

1. Men's Clothing. 

The first important principle to be noticed here is, that 
a dress composed of cloths of different colors, especially if 
the colors are complementary, or nearly so, may be worn 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 125 

much longer, and Avill appear better, although nearly worn 
out, than a suit of a single color, even when the latter is 
of a piece of cloth identical with either of the kinds used 
in the first-mentioned suit. The cause of this it will not 
now be difficult to understand. 

Suppose the effect of the contrast of the two colors red 
and green, or red and blue, used in a suit of clothes, be to 
add one tenth in brilliancy to each color ; and suppose that 
one year's wear would diminish their brilliancy one tenth, 
then, in the case of the two colors associated, they would 
have the same degree of brilliancy at the end of one year 
of wear, as would be presented by a new suit of either of 
the colors alone. 

The increased brilliancy gained by the contrast of com- 
plementary, or nearly complementary colors, is one great 
advantage of forming the suits of soldiers of cloths of dif- 
ferent colors. A dress made of cloths of different colors 
will not so soon ichiten in the seams as a dress of a single 
color. 

2. Female Clothing. Blondes. 

The complexions of females of the Caucasian or white 
race present two types: 1st, blondes, with light hair and 
blue eyes. 

In this type the color of the hair, which is more or less 
flaxen, is essentially a very pale orange-brown y and the 
color of the skin, although of a lower tone, is analogous to 
it, except in the red parts. Now Nature has shown an 
admirable regard to the harmony of colors in contrasting 
blue eyes by hues of the complementary orange in the hair 
and complexion. The purplish-red of the lips and the rosy 
hue of the cheeks beautifully modify the severity of the 
contrast, on principles before explained (see page 114). 
Thus much for Nature's regard for harmony. Nor is it 
now difficult to see what colors in dress best accord with 
the blonde type, for it must be, as is well known, sky-blue 
— that color which approaches nearest to the complement- 
ary of a pale orange. 



126 MANUAL OF INFOKMATION 

On the same principles delicate green is favorable to all 
fair complexions that are deficient in rose, and which may- 
have more imparted to them without disadvantage ; for it 
not only harmonizes the sky-blue and the pale orange, but 
gives its complementary red to the complexion. If, how- 
ever, the complexion be already too red, or have too much 
orange in it, even delicate green will be unsuitable, for 
what it will add will give the complexion too much of a 
brick-red hue. 

We may now see, therefore, why either a light blue bon- 
net, ornamented with white flowers, and sometimes with 
yellow and orange flowers (but not with rose or violet flow- 
ers), or a green bonnet trimmed with white or rose flow- 
ers, is advantageous to fair or rose complexions.* Neither 
orange nor yellow bonnets are suited to blondes ; and pur- 
ple is unsuitable to all complexions, as there are none which 
are improved by having its complementary, greenish-yel- 
low, added to them. 

Rose-red, pink, maroon, and light crimson, have the dis- 
advantage of rendering a fair complexion more or less 
green, and if used in a bonnet they should be separated 
from the skin by a border of tulle lace, or some similar ma- 
terial. Although lustreless white accords well with a fresh 
complexion, it is unsuitable for complexions that have a 
disagreeable tint, because white, as we have seen, exalts all 
colors by raising their tone. Black draperies, by lowering 
the tone of the colors with which they are in juxtaposi- 
tion, whiten a fair complexion ; but this very whitening, 
exerting its influence most on the whiter portions of the 
face, causes the rosy parts, such as the lips, to appear, rela- 
tively to the white, redder than before. 

* The reason why deep blue and deep green would not be suitable to 
blondes is, that colors, to be complementary, must correspond in depth of 
tone. Therefore it requires a tint of blue or green, as light, comparative- 
ly, as the pale orange of the complexion, to be the complementary of the 
latter. 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 127 

3. Female Clothing. Brunettes. 

Brunettes, with black hair and black eyes, form the sec- 
ond type of the complexions of females of the white race. 

Yellow, and red more or less orange, are the two colors 
which contrast most favorably with the black hair and 
black eyes of brunettes. Hence a yellow or orange bon- 
net suits a brunette well, and may have, for trimmings, 
their complementaries blue or violet, if large masses of hair 
separate the bonnet from the complexion. As the brunette 
complexion has already too much orange in it, it is evident 
that so much blue as would be presented by a blue bonnet, 
and which would impart its complementary orange to the 
complexion, would be unsuitable for this type. If a white 
bonnet be worn, its accessories may be of red, rose, orange, 
or yellow, but not blue. 

4. The Copper-colored, Black, or Olive-colored Races. 

As the copper-colored complexion of the women of the 
North American Indians would be disagreeably dulled or 
deadened by partially, neutralizing it, or lowering its tone, 
it is better to heighten its tint. For this purpose a drapery 
of white may be used, on the principle that white height- 
ens all colors ; or a drapery of greenish-blue may be em- 
ployed, for then the complexion will receive a still redder 
orange hue. 

The olive or black complexion also appears best when 
heightened by contrast. To this end, if the skin be in- 
tensely black, or dark olive, or greenish-black, red is pref- 
erable to any other color. If the skin be a blue-black, or- 
ange is particularly suitable. Yellow best accords with a 
purple-black, as being nearest its complementary. It is not 
without reason, therefore, that negro women delight in red, 
orange, and yellow, for these colors best become them by 
heightening the tone of their complexion. 

From the foregoing principles it will now be easy to see 
how the prevailing color of the complexion may be either 
heightened or lowered by the dress worn. 



128 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

1. The prevailing tint of the complexion is heightened 
by a white drapery. 

2. By a drapery the color of which is the complementary 
of the tint ; such as a green drapex*y for a rosy complexion, 
or a light blue drapery for the pale orange complexion of a 
blonde. 

3. A green drapery also heightens an orange complexion 
by giving it more red; and a yellow produces a similar 
effect. 

The tint may be lowered — 

1. By a black drapery, which lowers it by contrast of 
tone. 

2. By a drapery of the same color as the tint, but of a 
much deeper or higher tone ; such as a deep red drapery 
with a rosy complexion, or a deep orange drapery with an 
orange-tinted complexion ; for in these cases the deep tones 
have the effect, by force of contrast, to blanch out the light- 
er tints of the same colors. 

XIV. HARMONY OF COLORS IN NATURE. 

We have noticed a few of these harmonies — in the light 
blue eyes and pale orange complexions of blondes — in the 
black hair and eyes, and darker orange complexions of bru- 
nettes — in the natural fondness of the black races for those 
draperies of red, yellow, and orange, which harmonize with 
their complexions ; and we have alluded to the harmonies 
which prevail in the boundless variety of the subdued col- 
ors seen in vegetation, in the plumage of birds, coverings 
of animals, etc. We give a few more illustrations. 

Green is not only the most abundant color in nature, but 
also the one most soothing to the eye ; and it contrasts 
more agreeably with all colors than any other one. As 
green is the most general color of vegetation, so red, its 
complementary or harmonizing color, and compounds of 
red, are most general in flowers. Purple flowers have 
most commonly their centres of variegations of yellow, the 
complementary of purple ; and blue flowers are most com- 
monly relieved with orange, the complementary of blue. 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 129 

Blue and green in juxtaposition are discordant, and need 
to be harmonized by some warm color ; but as Nature nev- 
er violates the laws of harmony, she interposes the warm 
orange hues of the horizon to harmonize the blue of the 
sky and the green of the landscape. We have seen that 
the harmonizing color of orange is its complementary, blue ; 
and it is a singular fact, that the more the light of the sun 
partakes of a golden or orange hue, and the more parched 
and burned the earth is, the bluer appears the sky, as in It- 
aly and all hot countries. 

But, although this is a very interesting subject, our lim- 
ited space compels us to stop at the very threshold. In 
connection with the subject of Painting, we hope to unfold 
more of its beauties in the Seventh Reader of the " School 
and Family Series." 

Compositions. 

As the pupils are taken by their teacher over the differ- 
ent portions of the preceding article on colors, they should 
write compositions on them, upon such plans as the teach- 
er may suggest. Those who are sufficiently advanced 
should be accustomed to state not only the facts and prin- 
ciples presented, but, so far as they can, should give the 
explanations of them, with such illustrations as they can 
furnish. Both the harmonic and the discordant effects pro- 
duced by the juxtaposition of colors in dress, in paintings,, 
in nature, etc., will furnish a wide field for the application 
and illustration of principles. Let them examine and crit- 
icise paintings. Those who can obtain a copy of " Field's- 
Chromatography," an English work, will read with inter- 
est the numerous poetical selections found there, which 
show that our standard poets seem to have had an almost 
intuitive perception of the harmony of colors. See also, on 
this subject of harmony, Calkins's "Manual." 

F 2 



130 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

CHABT No. XV. ZOOLOGICAL: ECONOMICAL 
USES OF ANIMALS. 

[As mo3t of the exercises on this Chart are designed to be introduced early in the 
course, and are for the younger pupils, they preserve more of the " object" mode of 
teaching than those connected with some of the preceding Charts. As was before re- 
marked (page 22), the Charts are not, necessarily, to be taken up in the order in which 
they are numbered, nor are the exercises on any one necessarily to be gone through 
with uninterruptedly, or in consecutive order. The teacher must regulate the exer- 
cises according to the time at his command, and adapt his plan to the ages and capaci- 
ties of his pupils. The following lessons are therefore designed more as suggestions 
to the teacher than as a programme to be literally followed. See also Programme in 
the Appendix at the end of the volume.] 

What is this a Chart of? If the pupils do not readily 
answer "Animals" lead them to it by suitable questions ; 
and then lead them, of their own knowledge, to tell what 
an animal is ; that is, to give a definition of " an animal." 
They will perhaps say, "An animal is any thing that lives? 
But say to them, "Trees live ; and we talk about live trees 
and dead trees." This will perhaps lead them to add to 
their definition that "Animals are things that live and 
move." But say to them, " The trees move when the wind 
blows; and they are all the time moving, as the world 
moves." If now a pupil sees that animals move of their 
own will or accord, voluntarily, and that trees do not, he 
will have made out a very good definition ; and besides the 
mental discipline it will have given him, it will in itself be 
worth to him vastly more than if he had been told it. 
Webster says, "An animal is an organized body, endowed 
with life, sensation, and the power of voluntary motion." 
Vegetables are organized bodies, and are endowed with 
life; but they have neither sensation nor voluntary mo- 
tion. 

Are birds animals ? Fishes ? Frogs and turtles ? Flies ? 
Grasshoppers, etc. ? Yes, for they all live and move vol- 
untarily. 

The pupils should next familiarize themselves with the 
groups of animals represented in the twenty numbered il- 
lustrations on this Chart ; and for this purpose they should 
first merely point them out on the Chart, and name them, 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 131 

aided by the teacher if they can not do it without assist- 
ance. For example, he should tell them, pointing to No. 
1, "These are domestic cattle — cows and oxen." No. 3. 
"These are animals of the swine kind." No. 10. "These 
are some of the fur-bearing animals," etc. 

After this, encourage them to go to the Chart, one by 
one, to point out the groups, and to tell (aided by your 
questions in the way of suggestion) what they know about 
the animals represented. Most of the pupils will probably 
have some knowledge of most of the groups ; the domestic 
animals they are familiar with ; and many of the others 
may have been described to them from pictures, or they 
may have read about them, or may have seen them in me- 
nageries. Accustom them to tell freely and without em- 
barrassment what they know of them. Next proceed with 
a more systematic course of exercises on the illustrations in 
order, beginning with No. 1 . 

Number 1. Cattle: Chart XV. 

[Suitable " objects" to be used in connection with the lessons on this number would 
consist of specimens of sole-leat/ier, cow-hide, kip-skin, calf -skin, etc.] 

Can you tell what kinds of leather I have here ? Exam- 
ine them, and tell what they are. 

What animals are represented in the engraving No. 1 on 
this Chart? Cows and oxen. What do you call them 
when you see them in the field or pasture ? Cattle. The 
term cattle is also applied to horses, asses, mules, sheep, 
goats, and swine ; but in this country its use is mostly re- 
stricted to the ox kind. We also speak of the ox kind as 
neat or homed cattle. By a series of questions, lead the 
pupils to tell what they know about cows and oxen — their 
size, color, habits, uses, etc. Cattle are from four feet to 
five and a half or six feet in height at the shoulders, and 
from six to eight and nine feet in length, from the nose to 
the insertion of the tail. 

Tell the colors of those represented on the Chart, No. 1. 
How does the third cow from the front differ from the oth- 
ers? She has no horns. What are such cows called? 



132 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

Lead the pupils to tell you that cattle are of various colors 
— white, black,* red, dun or dull brown, and brindle, that 
is, marked with varied spots ; but that white, black, and 
red are the prevailing colors. What kind of feet have cat- 
tle ? Are they like those of cats and dogs ? Like those 
of horses ? How do the feet of cows differ from those of 
horses ? Cows, like horses, have hoofs / but in cows they 
are cleft/ in horses they are entire or whole. Animals 
whose hoofs are cleft are called cloven footed. Notice also 
the little hoofs of the cow on the legs and above the large 
hoofs. This is a horny excrescence at the posterior part 
of the fetlock. 

When cattle are standing in the yard, or lying down, 
after feeding during the day, have you ever noticed any 
peculiar habit which they have? They chew the cud. 
Does the horse chew the cud ? Do hogs ? No. What 
animals, then, do chew the cud ? All animals of the ox 
kind, such as cows, oxen, the buffalo or bison ; also sheep, 
goats, deer, etc. All animals that chew the cud are called 
ruminating animals, because one meaning of ruminate is, 
" to chew the cud." Can you tell what this chewing the 
cud is, and why cattle do it ?f 

* Although black is, correctly speaking, the absence of all colors, yet 
in popular language it is called a color. 

t Probably most young pupils will not know what this "chewing the 
cud" is, nor will they see any necessity for it. Ask them what kind of 
teeth cattle have ; if they have teeth like those of the squirrel, or of the 
cat, dog, etc. Show them that their front teeth are made for cropping 
or plucking off the grass, and their back teeth for grinding it, and not 
for gnawing nuts, nor for seizing other animals and tearing their flesh. 
As their food consists of grass, and herbage, and dried hay, etc., it re- 
quires to be thoroughly chewed (masticated), which would require more 
time than they can give to it while they are feeding. Now see what a 
wise provision the Creator has made for the wants of these animals. 

All the ruminating, or cud-chewing animals have a stomach of four 
cavities, instead of one as in other animals, as shown in the opposite en- 
graving. The grass cropped by them is not chewed at once, and the 
dried hay only partially, but is passed directly into the first stomach, or 
paunch. (See cut. The teacher should make a large drawing of it on 
the blackboard, and also a drawing of the stomach of man, for which see 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 



133 



Does the cow chew in the same manner as the dog does ? 
No. When the cow chews, her jaws have a sidewise grind- 
ing motion. Did you ever see the little balls come up 
the throat of the ox or cow into the mouth ? Did you 
ever see them come up the throat of the horse or the 
hog ? No. Do these animals, then, belong to the class of 
Ruminants ? 

What are cows useful for ? First, their milk ; how used ? 
butter and cheese made of it. How butter is made ; how 
the process of making butter is said to have been discov- 




Intestine 



upper part of Fig. 10, page 33, Fourth Reader.) Here it is macerated 
or soaked, after which it is passed into the second stomach, where it is 
made into little balls. When the animal is at leisure, each of these 
balls is brought up into the mouth, and is chewed, after which it is passed 
down into the third stomach, and thence into the fourth, where the gas- 
tric juice is mingled with it, and digestion properly commences. 

After giving the foregoing explanation to the pupils, ask them what 
use they suppose the young calf, lamb, etc., whose food is nothing but 
milk, can have for the first three stomachs. They have no grass to be 
soaked and to be made into balls. Did they ever see the young calf, or 
young lamb, chewing the cud? No. The truth is, in the suckling 
Ruminants the milk passes directly into the fourth stomach, the other 
stomachs remaining unemployed until the animal begins to graze. It 
is not until the tough grassy food needs the soaking and chewing to pre- 
pare it for digestion that the first three stomachs are brought into use. 
This is an adaptation to meet the peculiar wants of these animals. 



134 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

ered.* How cheese is made.f Ordinary price of each per 
pound. 2d. Flesh for food. What is the flesh of cows, 
oxen, etc., called ? Of calves ? How beef is cooked : boil- 
ed, roasted, dried, fried, broiled, stewed for soup. Beef pre- 
served ; what corned beef is. Prices. 3d. The fat, or tal- 
loto, for candles. Process of making candles. 4th. Sides 
or skins of oxen, calves, etc. What is made of them? 
Leather, for a great variety of uses. How is leather made 
from skins ? \ What kinds of leather are obtained from 
the skins of cattle ? Sole leather, from the heaviest ox- 
hides, used for the soles of heavy boots ; cow-hides, used 
for heavy boots ; kip-skins, from the skins of young cattle ; 
and calf-skins, from the skins of calves. 5th. Morns : the 
lower part used extensively for making combs ; the middle 
was formerly much used as a substitute for glass in lan- 
terns ; the tips are used for knife-handles, tops of whips, 
etc.§ 6th. Hoofs — glue made from, by boiling to a jelly. 
**7th. Hair — used extensively in mortar, for inside plaster- 
ing. For what purpose is it thus used ? 8th. Bones — used 

* In early times, when mankind were shepherds and herdsmen, they ' 
made vessels out of skins for carrying the milk. As these vessels were 
borne from place to place on camels, the jolting would soon convert a 
portion of the milk into butter. 

f Cheese is the curd of milk, separated from the whey, compressed into 
a solid mass, and dried for food. The prepared inner membrane of a 
calf's stomach, called rennet, is used for the purpose of coagulating the 
milk — that is, separating the curd from the whey. 

% Describe the tanning process — which consists of cleansing the skins 
of hair, flesh, etc., and then saturating them with tannin, which is an 
astringent principle contained in the bark of certain trees and plants. 
Oak, hemlock, and chestnut bark are much used for tanning. The 
skins of animals, when prepared by merely drying them, are stiff, in- 
capable of resisting water, and liable to decay ; but the tannin combines 
with the gelatin of the skin, and forms a durable compound, which is 
no longer soluble in water. When the tannin is too strong the leather 
is more quickly tanned, but it is more rigid and more liable to crack 
than when the operation is slower. The best of tanning requires a pe- 
riod of from ten to eighteen months. Latterly our leather has been 
much injured by rapid tanning. 

§ The handsomest combs are made of tortoise-shell. See Fifth Read- 
er, page 60. Combs are also made of India-rubber, or gutta-percha. 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 135 

extensively in making handles of knives, and for many other 
jntrposes. There are large stores near New York City 
which sell shin-bones only, of cattle and other animals, for 
such uses. These are mostly imported from South Amer- 
ica. Bones, burned and ground to powder, are extensively 
used in sugar-refineries for cleansing or purifying sugar. 
Ground bones are also used as a manure, and especially 
around the roots of fruit-trees. 

What are oxen mostly used for ? Are they harnessed to- 
gether ? Describe the ox-yoke. On which side of the oxen 
does the driver walk ? What is the ox near him called ? 
The ox on the other side ? What does the teamster tell 
the oxen when he wishes them to go to the right ? When 
he wishes them to turn to the left ? When he wishes them 
to stop ? Price (in the neighborhood) of a yoke of oxen ; 
of a cow. How long do cows and oxen live ? From 1 2 
to 25 years. Mention and define as many compound words 
as you can that have cow for one of the primitives. (Cow- 
hide, cow-house, cow-keeper, cow-herd, cow-lick, cow-leech, 
cow-like, cow-pox, etc.) For general description of ani- 
mals of the ox-kind, see Third Reader, page 217-219 * 

* Additional Notes. — The ox has eight incisors or cutting-teeth in the 
lower jaw, and none in the upper. It has no canine teeth (or tusks), 
but has six molars or grinding teeth on each side of both jaws. The 
teeth are represented by the following formula : Incisors % , canines g, 
molars |^|=32 teeth. The want of incisors in the upper jaw is a char- 
acteristic of the Ruminants. 

The principal kinds or breeds of cattle known in this country are, 1st, 
the Long Horns, originally Irish, and embracing the Lancashire, Derby, 
and Bedford cattle ; 2d, the Short Horns, including the Durhams, of 
splendid frames and beautifully varied colors, excellent for the dairy ; 
3d, the Middle Horns, including the Devonshire cattle, or North Devons, 
and the Herefords ; 4th, the Crumpled Horns, or Alderney cattle, origin- 
ally from France ; and, 5th, the polled, or Hornless cattle. 

The number of domestic cattle in all Europe has been estimated at 
71,400,000; in the United States at 22,000,000; in the whole world at 
210,000,000 ; and it is believed that one third of the entire number, or 
seventy millions, are killed annually. This would give seventy millions 
of skins, 140 millions of horns, 280 millions of feet, and seventy mil- 
lions of carcasses, to be converted annually into beef, tallow, leather, 



136 MANUAL OF INFOEMATION 

Oral and Written Compositions. 

The teacher will see from the foregoing lessons, which 
are here given as suggestions, and not as full details, that 
he may make the exercises on No. 1 quite extensive, bring- 
ing in a large amount of useful every-day information. He 
may extend them much farther than we have. With small 
pupils, however, he should at first limit himself to the most 
obvious and best known features, uses, and habits of these 
domestic animals, and should gradually extend his range 
of instruction as his pupils are prepared for it. He should 
be particular to lead them to tell as much as possible, as a 
fact or principle discovered by his pupils may be consid- 
ered worth, to them, ten times as much as if told them by 
their teacher. After the pupils have acquired a little fa- 
miliarity with No. 1, they should individually go to the 
Chart, point out the objects, and tell as much about them 
as possible. They will thus gradually learn to observe care- 
fully, to think accurately, to arrange or systematize their 
knowledge, and to express their thoughts in words. In 
such exercises will be found the proper continuation of 
composition writing from the lessons given in connection 
with the first six charts ; and when pupils are able to write 
with a little facility, they should make daily use of the pen 
in writing what they have told or spoken. They too often 
begin with the attempt to write on some abstract subject, 
such as pride, or anger, or honesty, or education ; and it is 
no wonder that writing compositions, under such circum- 
stances, is a repulsive task to them. But any pupil who 

combs, manure, etc. These estimates will serve to give some idea of the 
immense extent to which a single species of animal subserves the interests 
of man. 

The chest of an ox, or other animal, is the large cavity inclosed by the 
breast-bone, ribs, etc. ; and what is called the girth, of an ox is the meas- 
urement around the body, just back of the fore legs. 

The brisket is that fleshy appendage to the chest which hangs down 
between the fore legs. 

The dewlap is the flesh which hangs down from the throats of cattle, 
and which laps the dew when they are grazing. 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 137 

can use the pen, and who has gone over the foregoing ex- 
ercises on No. 1, will be able to write a very fair composi- 
tion, or several of them, about cattle. 

Number 2. Horses : Chart XV. 

What is this a picture of? Ahorse. Which do you 
think the handsomest, and the most graceful in his move- 
ments, the ox, or the horse ? Tell as many points of dif- 
ference as you can between the horse and the ox : — in gen- 
eral form, size, height, shape of head, ears, neck, body, legs, 
hoofs, tail, etc., and in strength, speed, docility, intelligence, 
etc. Mention the various purposes for which you have seen 
horses used. 

Of what colors have you seen horses? Black, bay, chest- 
nut, sorrel, roan, gray, and cream color, etc. JBay is a red- 
dish-brown. Chestnut is a lighter brown than bay. Sorrel 
is a yellowish-bay, or yellowish-brown. Roan is black, bay, 
chestnut, or sorrel, with white or gray hairs thickly inter- 
spersed. Do you know any horses in the neighboi-hood 
that are black ? Any that are bay ? Chestnut ? Sorrel ? 
.Roan ? etc. The color of the horse in No. 2 ? When we 
speak of the height of a horse, do we say the horse is so 
many feet or so many inches high ? We say, so many 
hands high. What is a "hand," in measure? Four inches. 
Where is the height of a horse measured? At the shoul- 
ders. What is considered a high horse ? One that is six- 
teen hands high. 

What sounds is the horse said to make, in the language 
which it uses ? It whinnies, and it neighs. What kind 
of shoes does the horse wear ? Who makes them ? How 
are they fastened to his feet ? Why do not the nails hurt 
him? Name the kinds of food which the horse eats. 
What quantity of oats would you give a horse at one 
time ? What danger from his eating too much grain, or 
drinking too much water when he is warm ? Danger that 
he may be foundered. What is the disease called the 
" founders ?" A disease that causes a soreness in a horse's 
feet. 



138 MANUAL OF LNFOKMATIOIST 

What is meant by a pair of horses ? "A pair" of horses 
signifies two horses harnessed together, or in some way- 
suited or adapted to each other. What other name is 
given to a pair of horses harnessed together ? A span. 
Mention the different parts of an ordinary harness, and tell 
their uses. Do we say " a span" of oxen ? What do we 
call a pair of oxen yoked together ? A yoke of oxen. Do 
we call " a span" of horses, or " a yoke" of oxen, by any 
other name ? Yes ; a team. What is a team ? A team is 
a number of oxen, horses, or other beasts, harnessed to the 
same vehicle, or drawing the same load. It is not strictly 
correct to say " a one-horse team."* 

How many kinds of vebicles drawn by horses can you 
mention and describe ? Mention as many compound words 
as you can that have horse for one of the primitives, and 
define them. Horse-blanket, horse- whip, horse-block, horse- 
boat, horse-boy, horse-breaker, horse-car, horse-cart, horse- 
dealer, horse-doctor, horse-fair, horse-fly, horse-hair, horse- 
laugh, horse-leech, horse-load, horse-pond, horse-race, etc. 
Can you tell any facts and anecdotes about the horse? 
See Third Reader, p. 191-197. Can you repeat or refer to 
any poetry on this subject? Third Reader, p. 198-204. 

What two animals of the horse kind, besides the horse, 
are represented in the engraving No. 2 ? Two asses. 
What things particularly distinguish the ass from the 
horse ? Its long ears, its tail ending in a tuft, and its pe- 
culiar bray.f 

* An ingenious teacher would elicit from the pupils the answers to 
nearly all of these questions without actually telling them any thing ; 
and he will show his skill and tact, both in his ready perception of their 
difficulties, and in the means which he takes to overcome them by such 
questions or suggestions as may be adapted to each particular case. He 
must not attempt to follow the precise course which we have marked out, 
as no one form and order of questions can possibly suit all cases. The 
teacher must make these exercises a free and familiar talk with his pu- 
pils. 

t We read in the Bible that the patriarchs Abram and Job possessed 
great herds of asses. These animals are found wild at the present day 
in large herds in the central deserts of Asia, each band directed by a 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 139 

Compositions. — These will naturally embrace such facts 
connected with the horse as have been elicited from the 
pupils, together with incidents and anecdotes with which 
they are personally acquainted, which have been told them, 
or which they have read of. 

Number 3. Swine : Chart XV. 

What does No. 3 represent ? Wild swine — animals of 
the hog kind. The one in front is a wild hog of the Mo- 
lucca Islands, with four immense tusks. What are the 
colors of hogs ? For what is the hog most useful ? Are 
there any people who do not eat the flesh of the hog? 
The Jews do not, because Moses interdicted the eating of 
swine's flesh. What is the flesh of the hog called ? Pork. 
Any other name ? What is bacon ? The flesh of the hog 
salted and smoked. What parts of the hog are usually 
salted and smoked ? The hams, and sometimes the shoul- 
ders. What part of the hog is the ham ? The thigh. 

How is pork usually preserved ? How cooked ?* What 
is the fat of the hog, when melted down, or " tried," call- 
ed? Lard. For what purposes is it used? Who can 

chief. Job describes the wild ass, ch. xxxv., verses 5, 6, 7, 8. The wild 
ass of Persia is a slender and elegant-looking creature, as fleet as the 
swiftest horse. It is of a cream-color, with a black mane. Its flesh is 
highly valued by the Persians, who consider it one of their chief deli- 
cacies. 

The obstinate mule is a mixed breed between the horse and the ass. 
Donkey is a common name for the ass and the mule. The zebra, an- 
other animal of the horse kind, known by its dark stripes, is very wild 
and fleet, living in troops, and shunning the dwellings of man. 

* Charles Lamb gives a humorous account of the manner in which 
roast pig was first discovered. He represents a Ohinese youth, by the 
name of Bobo, as perceiving a most delicious odor issuing from the 
blazing ruins of his father's cottage. This he finds to proceed from one 
of the pigs, a whole litter of which had been roasted in the conflagra- 
tion. Strongly tempted, he ventured to taste, and was entranced at the 
result. He now devoured all the rest of the roasted pigs, and finally set 
fire to a great number of cottages, so as to enjoy the repast of the young 
porkers baked in the blaze. At last his father discovered the secret, and 
ere long it was communicated to the world ; and thus for ages mankind 
have enjoyed the most delicious of viands — roast pig. 



140 MANUAL OF INFOEMATION 

name the most uses to which it is applied ?i Besides being 
used in cooking, it is largely used in making soap and can- 
dles, and oil for machinery. Who can tell how soap is 
made ? How candles are made ? What are the stiff hairs 
on the back of the hog called ? Did you ever notice these 
bristles when the hog is excited? How did they appear 
then? For what purposes are these bristles used? In 
making brushes, etc. Name as many kinds of brushes as 
you can. Can you think of any use which the shoemaker 
makes of these bristles ? Which end of the bristle does 
he fasten to his " waxed-end," and why ? 

Is there any thing peculiar about the tip of the nose or 
snout of the hog ? For what does the hog chiefly employ 
the tip of its nose? Why does the hog root up the 
ground ? Do you see any design, then, in making the tip 
of the hog's nose so tough and strong ? Why are wires 
sometimes put into the hog's nose ? What is this putting 
in twisted wires called ? What is the food of the hog ? 
What is the best food for fattening hogs ? Indian corn. 
Can you describe the feet of the hog ? The feet consist of 
four toes, of which the two middle ones are considerably 
longer and stouter than the others, forming a cloven hoof, 
upon which the animal walks. The two lateral toes are 
also furnished with hoofs, but they are placed at the back 
of the foot, at some little elevation from the ground. Who 
can tell what souse is ? 

Are the eyes of the hog large/ or smair ? What can 
you say about the habits of the hog ? What noise does 
the hog make when it is happy or contented ? When it is 
in pain, or is hungry ? Do you know of. any use that is 
made of the skin of the hog ? It is largely used in making 
saddles for horses. What is a young hog called ? A 
shote; but the very young are called pigs. When a hog 
is killed, what is the process of preparing it for use called ? 
Dressing it. Is that the ordinary meaning of" dressing" ? 
What will a large hog weigh when dressed? From five 
hundred to eight hundred pounds.* 

* According to the census of 1850, the number of hogs in the United 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 141 

Compositions. — In accordance with previous sugges- 
tions, p. 102, 104, etc. 

Number 4. Sheep : Chart XV. 

[Suitable " objects" to be used in connection with the lessons on this number would 
consist of samples of different grades of wool, of pieces of sheep-skin variously tanned, 
of the principal kinds of woolen cloths, of felt and shoddy, and of parchment and vel- 
lum.] 

What does the lower part of engraving No. 4 represent ? 
A flock of sheep. How does the covering of the sheep dif- 
fer from that of the ox, or the horse ? Here is a little 
bunch of wool; how does wool differ from hair? It is 
softer than hair (except fur in masses), of a finer texture, 
more matted and curled, or twisted, and of a silky feel. 
What kind of feet have sheep ? What kind of horns ? Are 
sheep timid' or fierce^ ? Sagacious' or dulT ? What is the 
word " sheepish" often used to designate ? What is a lamb 
the emblem of ? Innocence. And why? 

What is the flesh of sheep called ? What uses are made 
of the skin? It is made into leather, and used for a great 
variety of purposes ; the most extensively, perhaps, for book- 
binding. Parchment is also made of it.* The cuttings, or 

States was about thirty millions. It is now probably much larger. In 
Cincinnati alone, the centre of the Western pork market, the value of 
the products of the pork trade — in pork, bacon, lard oil for machinery, 
and in candles, hides, bristles, etc. — is said to exceed ten millions of dol- 
lars annually. During the year 1856 the number of hogs packed in 
Cincinnati alone was 405,390, and their average weight was 285 £- 
pounds. 

* Parchment, used for writing upon, is prepared from the skins of sheep 
and goats. These, after being steeped in pits impregnated with lime, 
are stretched upon frames, and reduced by scraping and paring to less 
than half their original thickness ; after which they are rubbed smooth 
with pulverized chalk and pumice-stone, and dried for use. Vellum, sim- 
ilar to parchment, is made from the skins of very young calves. Catgut, 
used for strings of musical instruments, the cords of clock-weights, and 
those of some other machines and instruments, is made from the intes- 
tines of different quadrupeds, particularly those of cattle and sheep. 
What is called gold-heater's skin, between layers of which gold-beaters 
lay the leaves of their metal while they beat it, is an extremely fine mem- 
brane, made also from the intestines of animals. 



142 MANUAL OF USTFOKMATION 

little strips, are not wasted, but are made into glue. What 
are the undressed skins, with the wool on, usually called ? 
Pelts. What are the fat portions of the sheep used for ? 
For making candles and soap. What are the principal 
kinds of sheep in this vicinity ? The kinds of sheep most 
highly prized for their wool are the pure-blooded Merinos, 
the Saxons, the Cotswolds, the Leicestershires, and the Ox- 
fordshires. The South Downs are particularly esteemed for 
the excellence of their flesh ; and their wool is valuable for 
many purposes, on account of the facility with which it can 
be wrought. How is wool sold x — by the pound', or the 
fleece v ? How much per pound, ordinarily ? How much 
is ordinarily obtained from a sheep ?* 

What does the upper part of the engraving No. 4 repre- 
sent? A sheep-washing. How often are sheep washed, and 
at what season of the year ? Why are the sheep washed ? 
How is their wool taken from them ? Do you know what 
kind of shears is used ? What use is made of the wool ? 
Cloth is made of it. What is clone with the wool in mak- 
ing it into cloth ? After shearing, the wool passes through 
a great many processes-, and is carded, spun, and then woven 
into cloth, either with or without being colored.f What is 

* Samples of wool of different degrees of fineness and length of fibre 
should be obtained, and examined by the pupils until they can readily 
distinguish the principal grades of long wool, short wool, coarse wool, 
fine wool, etc. Long wool may vary in length from three to eight 
inches. In sorting wools there are frequently eight or ten different 
grades in a single fleece ; but it is only the experienced wool-sorter who 
can distinguish all of them. It is not difficult, however, to distinguish 
five or six different grades from different fleeces. In the year 1850, 
when there were fifty-two and a half millions of pounds of wool produced 
in the United States, the average weight of each fleece was a little less 
than two pounds and a half. 

t "The wool obtained from sheep becomes the means of support to 
staplers, 1 dyers, packers, scourers, 2 carders, combers, spinners, spoolers, 
warpers, weavers, fullers, 3 burlers, 4 shearmen, pressers, and clothiers, who, 
one after another, tumble, and toss, and twist, and bake, and boil, and 
pound, and press this raw material, till they have each extracted a live- 
lihood from it ; and then comes the merchant, who, in his turn, ships it, 
in its highest state of improvement, to all quarters of the globe, whence 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 143 

the cloth called, which is made of wool ? "Woolen cloth. 
What are some of the names given to the different kinds 
of woolen goods ? Broadcloths/ Petershams," pilot-cloth, 
cashmeres/ cassimeres/ kerseys/ tweeds/ tartans/ linsey- 
woolseys, 1 moleskins, doeskins, beaver-cloths, shawls, blank- 
ets, flannels, hosiery, carpets, etc. The pupils will, doubt- 
less, be able to give many of these, and also other names. 
They should not be told any thing that may be elicited 
from them by questioning. 

Do you know what the common felt hat is made of? 
Of wool. Is this wool either spun or woven ? Hats of 
this kind, found in every school-room, may be examined, 

he brings back every kind of riches to his country, and all in return for 
this valuable commodity which the sheep affords." As a good object 
lesson, let a pupil take a piece of woolen cloth, and trace it back through 
its several stages— or so many of them as he can— to the back of the 
sheep ; and then let the teacher explain, if he can, the physiology of the 
growth of the wool itself. 

1 Stapler is a dealer ; as, a woo\-stapkr. 

2 Scomer, one who cleanses or cleans the wool. 

3 Fuller, one whose occupation is to full, or thicken the cloth in a full- 
ing-mill. 

4 Burler, one who dresses the cloth— raising the nap by combing it 
with the bur of the teasel, etc. 

a Broadcloth is a fine kind of woolen cloth, of broad make, used for 
fine coats, etc. 

b Pe'-ters-ham, a kind of rough woolen cloth, used mostly for overcoats. 

c Pilot-cloth is a coarse indigo-blue woolen cloth, used for great-coats, 
and the clothing of mariners and others. 

d The genuine Cashmere is a peculiar fabric made from the soft downy 
wool which forms the inner coat of the Cashmere goat of Thibet. The 
true Cashmere shawls are manufactured of this wool, but they are now 
well imitated from sheep's wool. 

e Cassimere is a thin twilled woolen cloth, generally woven from the 
finest wools. It is also written Kerseymere. 

f Kersey is a coarse woolen cloth, usually ribbed, and woven from long 
wool. 

* Tweed is a light woolen cloth. 

h Tartan is a fine worsted, silk, cotton, or mixed cloth, checked with 
threads of various colors. 

1 Linsey-iuoolsey is a kind of coarse cloth made of flax and wool 
mixed. 



144 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

when it will be seen that the wool is neither spun nor 
woven. In this case the rough wool fibres being thor- 
oughly intermixed and compressed in hot water, cohere 
and form a solid tenacious substance. This process is called 
felting. Fur hats, also, are made by this same process. 
All woolen cloths made of short wool are subjected to a 
similar process. They are put into a fulling mill, where 
the strokes of the mill make the fibres cohere ; the cloth, 
subjected to this operation, contracts in length and breadth, 
and its texture becomes more compact and uniform. Cotton 
and flax can not he felted, because the fibres have not that 
jagged structure which causes the woolen fibres to cohere 
when firmly pressed together. Before wool can be felted 
it must be thoroughly freed from all oily matter, otherwise 
the fibres will easily loosen their hold upon each other. 

Can you see the threads in most new woolen cloths — 
broadcloths, for example ? Why not ? What is it that 
covers up the threads ? A downy surface, called the nap. 
Do you know how this nap is produced ? By carding the 
cloth with a species of bitrs of the common teasleiplmt. 
This operation loosens from the woolen threads a part of 
the fibres of the wool, and lays them in a parallel direction. 
The nap, composed of these fibres, is then cut off to an 
even surface by the process of shearing. But it is evident 
that, while this process improves the beauty of the cloth, it 
diminishes its strength. Have you ever heard of or seen 
shoddy cloth? Do you know what it is made of? Old 
woolen rags, instead of being thrown away, are collected, 
and, after being subjected to various processes, are torn in 
pieces by the aid of powerful machinery, and reduced to 
their original state of wool ; and this wool, being respun, 
either with or without an admixture of fresh wool, is made 
into a cloth called shoddy. Handsome blankets, druggets, 
carpets, table-covers, and cloth for pilot and Petersham 
great-coats, are either wholly or partly made of shoddy. 
The clothing of the English army and navy consists prin- 
cipally of this material. It has been said that this shoddy, 
being manufactured from articles that were formerly deem- 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 145 

ed of no value, "is one of the greatest triumphs of art and 
civilization." Do you know what worsted is ? It is wool- 
en yarn or cloth, made of long wool deprived of its felting 
properties by passing it through heated iron combs. There- 
fore genuine worsted stockings ought not to full up like or- 
dinary wool. Of what length have you found fibres of 
wool ?* 

Compositions, — In accordance with previous sugges- 
tions, pages 102, 104, etc. 

Number 5. Goats: Chart XV. 

[Suitable " objects" to be used in connection with the lessons on this number would 
consist of specimens of red, black, green, and yellow morocco, and of kid, and fabrics 
made of goats' wool.] 

Can you tell what kinds of leather I have here? What 
animals produce the skins from which this leather is ob- 
tained ? 

What animals are represented in No. 5 ? Goats. How 
do goats differ from sheep ? Question those pupils Avho 
have seen both, about the points of difference, and see if 
they have observed them. The horns of the sheep are first 
directed backward, and then forward in a curve, while the 
horns of goats are generally directed only upward and 
backward. The horns of the upper goat in No. 5 are too 
much curved. The hoofs of the goat are higher, thicker, 
and more compact than those of the sheep ; the false hoofs 
are more fully developed; head smaller and finer; ears 
shorter and rounded ; hair long and unequal ; the goat is 
unpleasantly odorous, while sheep are not so ; the goat is 
curious, capricious, and bold, while the sheep has very "lit- 
tle curiosity, is staid and timid ; in fighting, the goat rears 
* The census of 1850 shows that there were then 1559 woolen facto- 
ries in the United States, with a capital of about twenty-nine millions of 
dollars, devoted to the manufacture of wool. The woolen manufactures 
thus produced amounted to forty-three millions of dollars ; in addition 
to which we imported nearly seventeen millions' worth for our use. Thus 
we consume annually more than sixty millions of dollars' worth of wool- 
en manufactures, or an average of $2 60 for each person in the United 
States. 

G 



146 MANUAL OF INFOEMATION 

itself on its hind-legs, and lets the weight of its body fall 
on the adversary, while the sheep, in fighting, runs a tilt, 
adding the force of impulse to that of weight ; most goats 
have a beard, while the sheep have none. 

What is the covering of goats ? Some are covered whol- 
ly with hair, others with wool mixed with hair. The 
Cashmere goats of Thibet, from which the famous Cash- 
mere shawls are made, are covered with a hard, stiff, 
coarse kind of hair, called Jcemp, under which, in the win- 
ter, is a vest of the most delicate grayish wool. Why is 
this fine wool found there in winter and not in midsum- 
mer ? What becomes of it ? What becomes of the wool 
on the sheep in summer if it is not sheared off? At what 
season of the year do animals — horses, cows, etc. — " shed 
their coats" the most freely ? Why in the early part of 
summer? How does the hide look when they are shed- 
ding their coats ? How after that ? At what season of 
the year is the hair or fur of animals the longest and the 
most dense ? Why ? 

How much wool does an ordinary sheep produce annu- 
ally ? From two to five pounds. How much of the inner 
coating of fine wool do you suppose a goat produces annu- 
ally ? Only about three ounces — about the fifth part of a 
pound. Do you think, then, a Cashmere shawl can be fur- 
nished at as low a price as a shawl made of sheep's wool ? 
The price of the fine Cashmere wool, even in Thibet, is 
about a dollar and a quarter a pound ; and a genuine Cash- 
mere shawl is not unfrequently sold for five hundred dol- 
lars — some even for a thousand. The hemp or hairy cov- 
ering of the goat is used in the manufacture of coarse cloth. 

In what parts of the world are goats most abundant ? 
In many parts of Asia and in Southern Europe. What 
uses are made of the common and wild goats ? Their 
flesh is wholesome food ; their milk nutritious ; their un- 
dressed skins are the winter covering of a large part of the 
mountain shepherds and peasants of Europe and Asia; 
their tanned skins make the finest morocco, which is used 
for shoes, for book-binding, and for a thousand ornamental 






FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 147 

purposes ; and in France kid gloves are manufactured by- 
millions from the dressed skins of the young goats, called 
kids. In England the lawyers, judges, and bishops wear 
wigs made of white goats' hair. The horns of goats make 
excellent knife-handles; their tallow the best of candles; 
and their hams, when salted, are called rock-venison, and 
are equal to those of the deer. (See also Third Reader, 
pages 220, 221.) 

Compositions. — In accordance with previous sugges- 
tions, pages 102, 10-4, etc. 

Number 6. Elephants: Chart XV. 

[Specimens of ivory — such as an ivory paper-folder, ivory toys, etc.] 

What is this which I hold in my hand ? What material 
is it made of? Ivory. Where do we obtain this ivory? 
Is it a vegetable substance, an animal substance, or a min- 
eral substance ? Lead the pupils, by questioning or by 
suggestions, until they discover that the tusks of the ele- 
phant are ivory ; then proceed with the following.* 

What animal is represented in No. 6 ? Probably all of 
you have seen the animal. Where did you see it ? In a 
menagerie. What is a menagerie ? A collection of wild 
animals. What other animals did you see there? How 
large do you. think the elephant is ? It is from seven to 
twelve feet high, but the average height is about eight feet. 
The length of the body, from the mouth to the insertion of 
the tail, is from nine to fifteen feet, and it weighs from 
5000 to 7000 pounds. How does it compare, in size and 
weight, with horned cattle ? See No. 1. 

But the elephant seems to have no neck at all, or only a 
very short one. How, then, can it eat from the ground ?f 

* Most of the ivory of commerce is obtained from the tusks of the el- 
ephant ; but the tusks of the walrus or sea-horse also furnish excellent 
ivory. (See Third Reader, pages 173 and 183.) The tusks of the hip- 
| popotamus and wild boar are also ivory, though it is inferior to that pro- 
duced by the elephant and walrus. 

f Children should not be told at once how it obtains its food. If they 
make the discovery, they will be far more deeply impressed with the ev- 
idences of design and adaptation than if all had first been explained to 



148 MANUAL OF INFOKMATION 

It puts its food into its mouth with its flexible trunk or 
proboscis. How does it drink? By sucking up a quan- 
tity of water into its trunk, then putting the trunk into its 
mouth, and pouring, or rather blowing, in the water. Can 
you mention any other uses of the trunk ? The elephant 
breathes through it and smells through it, as it contains the 
nostrils of the animal ; and it can spout water with it quite 
a distance. In its native wilds it cools and washes itself 
by standing in the pools or streams, and spouting water all 
over its body. At the end of the trunk is an appendage 
like a finger, with which the animal can pick up an object 
as small as a penny. This trunk is composed of more than 
forty thousand small muscles, variously interlaced, flexible 
in all directions, and is endowed with exquisite sensibility. 
The trunk is also the organ of the voice, and through it the 
animal utters strong, trumpet-like tones. 

"What is the food of the elephant ? "Wholly vegetable : 
in its wild state, the leaves and branches of trees, etc. ; 
when tame, it is fed on grass, hay, oats, bran, etc. Ele- 
phants are fond of sweetmeats, and also, in India, of ar- 
rack, a spirituous liquor made from rice. What are those 
things which project from the mouth of the elephant? 
Two long, tapering ivory tusks.* From which jaw do 
these come ? The upper jaw. The elephant has no inci- 
sors — that is, front or cutting teeth — in either jaw. Of 
what length have you seen elephants' tusks ? These tusks 
are often from six to eight or ten feet in length. One 
has been known fourteen feet in length. They not un- 
frequently weigh a hundred and fifty pounds each, but 
the average weight is sixty pounds. The great value of 
these tusks may be estimated by the fact that the largest 

them. Teachers should bear in mind that the answers which we have 
given are designed to aid the teacher in making suggestions to his pupils 
only when such suggestions are necessary. 

* The female elephants in Asia have no tusks, while in Africa both 
the male and the female have tusks, although those of the male are 
much the largest. Portions of the African elephant are eaten by the na- 
tives. The trunk is considered a great delicacy ; and a French writer 
speaks of the foot as a dish " fit for a king." 



FOR OBJECT LESSON'S. 149 

ivory brings in the market about a dollar and a half a 
pound. It is supposed that the tusks of more than ten 
thousand elephants are used annually, a few of which are 
obtained from elephants that have died in the natural way, 
but most of them from elephants that have been hunted 
and killed for their ivory. A large trade in ivory is car- 
ried on with the African coasts. In Sheffield, England, 
five hundred persons are occupied as ivory workers, in 
making knife-handles, chess-men, billiard-balls, combs, pa- 
per-folders, mathematical and musical insti*uments, toys, 
etc. The Chinese are better workers in ivory than any 
other people.* 

What is that placed on the back of the elephant ? It is 
a kind of seat or carriage, called a houdah in India. Who 
is the man sitting in front, on the neck of the elephant ? 
He is the driver or keeper of the elephant, called the ma- 
hout. " In India the elephant is a familiar beast. In an- 
cient times it went to war with towers filled with soldiers 
on its back: it now carries traveling parties in a similar 
manner. Kings and princes ride upon it in state, and the 
animal seems to take a delight in the pomp and pageantry 
of which it forms a part. A strong elephant can carry a 
burden of three or four thousand pounds, and it will bear 
a thousand pounds on its tusks. It loads and unloads boats 
with its trunk ; it pulls at a tackle ; it rolls and lifts and 
carries barrels and hogsheads; in short, it does the work 
of oxen, horses, and men.f 

Compositions. — In accordance with previous sugges- 
tions, pages 102, 104, etc. •» 

* The celebrated Athenian statue of the Olympian Jupiter, made of 
gold and ivory by the sculptor Phidias, was sixty feet high. It was such 
a prodigy of art that it was thought by the ancients worthy to be reck- 
oned among the seven wonders of the world. 

f For farther description of the elephant — his habits, sagacity, uses, 
anecdotes of, etc.— see Third Reader, page 182-186. 



150 MANUAL OF INFOKMATION 

Number 7. Camels : Chart XV. 

[Specimens of camel's-hair pencils, camel' s-hair cloth, etc.] 

Here is a little brush, which you have perhaps seen used 
for painting in water-colors. Do you know what it is 
called, and what it is made of? It is called a camel's-hair 
pencil, and it is made of the soft hair of the camel. At 
what season of the year do you suppose this hair is ob- 
tained from the camel ? Why in the spring, or early sum- 
mer? Because then the camel, like other animals, sheds 
its hair. Do you know of any other use which is made of 
camel's hair ? Is any mention made of its use in the New 
Testament ? Yes : the raiment of John the Baptist was 
made of camel's hair. The Arabs at this day manufacture 
the hair of the camel into wearing apparel, tents, and car- 
pets. In Southern and Western Asia, and Northern Africa, 
it is an important article of commerce. The French man- 
ufacture it into hats. 

Where is the camel represented on this Chart ? In 
No. 1. What kind of a camel is the upper one, with the 
two humps on its back ? The Bactrian camel. How large 
do you suppose this camel to be — as large as the elephant', 
or as large as an ox ? It is nearly as high as the elephant, 
being from 7 to 9 feet in height. Its length is about 10 
feet. How do its body and limbs compare with those of 
the elephant ? Is the loaded camel in front like the one 
above ? Can you see any difference in them ? The upper 
camel is covered with shaggy hair, especially under the 
throat ; the lower one is not. Moreover, if the load were 
removed from the one in front, you would see that it has 
but one hump on its back. This is called the Dromedary, 
or Arabian camel. See Third Reader, page 205. It is not 
quite so large as the Bactrian camel, but is a faster traveler. 
If the upper camel is the largest, why is it represented, 
here, smaller than the other ? 

In what countries are camels found? What uses are 
made of them? In what respects are they peculiarly adapt- 
ed to these warm countries? See Third Reader, page 205- 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 151 

207. Are they ever found in a wild state ? No : the whole 
race appears to have been, from time immemorial, under 
the dominion of man. In the Scriptures camels are fre- 
quently spoken of, not as wild animals, but as already sub- 
ject to man's use. See Genesis, xxxii., 7, and xxxvii., 25 ; 
Judges, viii., 21 ; Job, i., 3, andi., 17, and xlii., 12, etc. Do 
you know what a caravan is ? In what important respect 
are camels like oxen, sheep, etc. ? Like the ox, the camel 
chews the cud, and is therefore called a ruminating animal. 
How does the hoof of the camel differ from that of the ox? 
It is soft, tough, and elastic, so as to yield readily to the 
stones of the desert; but it is not cloven-footed like the ox, 
the toes only being divided. In Leviticus, xi., 4, the camel 
is enumerated among the animals which the Israelites are 
forbidden to eat, " because he cheweth the cud, but divid- 
eth not the hoof." 

Compositions. — In accordance with previous sugges- 
tions, pages 102, 104, etc. 

Number 8. Dogs : Chart XV, 

What animals are represented in No. 8 ? What three 
kinds or varieties are there represented ? How many dif- 
ferent kinds of dogs have you seen ? How many can you 
mention and describe ?* What is the food of the dog ? 

* The principal kinds or varieties of dogs are : 

1. The mastiff, a favorite watch-dog, of grave aspect, imposing appear- 
ance, and a deep, sonorous voice. He is a faithful friend, but a fierce 
and bitter enemy. 

2. The bull-dog, of moderate size, but of great strength and courage ; 
has a round, thick head, a tumed-up nose, and thick and pendulous 
lips. 

3. The Newfoundland dog, brought at first from Newfoundland. 

4. Esquimaux dog, smaller than the Newfoundland ; very useful to 
his master in drawing sledges and carrying heavy loads. Its ears are 
short and erect, and its bushy tail curves elegantly over its back. 

5. The water-spaniel, which delights in plunging into water, and is of 
great use to the sportsman while shooting wild ducks or water-hens. 

6. The Dalmatian or coach-dog, with a spotted hide, distinguished by 
his fondness for horses, and as being the frequent attendant on the car- 
riages of the wealthy. 



152 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

Mostly animal food ; wholly so in a wild state. How, then, 
does the dog differ in this respect from horses, oxen, and 
sheep ? Do you know what those animals are called which 
live on the flesh of other animals ? Carnivorous, which 
means " flesh-eating." Then there should be some distinct 
name for those that live on vegetable food. Do you know 
what it is ? Gram-i-niv'-o-rous, or " grass-eating." 

How do the feet of the dog differ from those of the ox ? 
The ox has a cleft hoof; the dog has toes to his feet and 
elates. Did you ever notice how many toes the dog has 
on his fore feet ? Five. How many on the hinder feet ? 
Four.* How many claws on each foot ? The same num- 
ber as the number of toes. Can the dog use his claws in 
the same manner as the cat does? Did you ever see the 
cat extend its claws, and then draw them back so as al- 
most entirely to conceal them? Can the dog do this? 
No. The claws of the cat, and of all animals of the cat 
kind, including the lion, tiger, etc., are retractile, while 
those of the dog are wow-retractile. Did you ever notice 
how the dog walks, whether on the sole of its feet or on 
the toes ? It walks on its toes. So does the cat, the lion, 
the tiger, etc.f 

7. The blood-hound, a native of Spain, was early sent to the West In- 
dies, where it was used by the Spanish invaders as an ally in their wars 
with the revolted Indians. 

8. The English, Scotch, Irish, Russian, Grecian, Turkish, Persian, and 
Italian greyhounds. 

9. The Mount St. Bernard dog, or Alpine spaniel. 

10. The shepherd's dog. The muzzle is sharp, the ears are short and 
nearly erect, and the animal is covered, particularly about the neck, 
with thick and shaggy hair. 

11. The old English hound, of large size, long body, deep chest ; ears 
long, large, and pendulous ; and a peculiarly deep voice. 

12. The fox-hound, a much esteemed and celebrated hunting-dog in 
England. The beagle and harrier are also fox-hounds. 

13. The setter, the pointer, the Scotch and English terriers, the King 
Charles spaniel, the little lion-dog, the Maltese dog, and the poodle. 

* There are some species of dogs (but not among those that are com- 
mon) that have five toes on their hinder feet. 

t Those animals which walk on their toes are called digitigrade, from 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 153 

What sounds do dogs make in the kind of language 
which they use ? They bark, bay, howl, yelp, whine, moan, 
growl, and snarl. When and why do they bark, howl, 
whine, etc. ? See Third Reader, page 144. For what are 
dogs most noted? For their sagacity, and their fidelity 
to their masters. Do you know of any instances of either 
from your own observation ? Can you tell of any that you 
have heard of or read of? Some examples of both are 
given in the Third Reader, page 144-151. Have dogs the 
same senses that we have ? Which of their senses is the 
most acute ? That of scent, or smell. How does the fox- 
hound follow its prey? By scent. Do all dogs folloAV 
their prey by scent ? No : the greyhound follows by sight 
only. Did you ever have a dog lick your hand ? Was its 
tongue soft', or harsh % ? Soft. Did you ever have a cat 
lick your hand ? Was the tongue of the cat as soft as that 
of the dog ? No : the tongue of all the animals of the cat 
kind — such as cats, lions, panthers, tigers, etc. — is covered 
with small recurved prickles, with which they are enabled 
to lick the last particles of flesh froni the bones of their 
prey. 

Compositions. — In accordance with previous sugges- 
tions, pages 102, 104, etc. 

Number 9. Fur-bearing Animals: Chart XV. 

What are muffs and tippets generally made of? The 
furs of animals. What furs have you seen used, for these 
and other purposes? What animals are most noted for 
their furs.* What fur-bearing animals are represented on 

the Latin digitus, a finger or toe, and gradi, to walk. Those which, like 
the bear, place the sole of the foot on the ground in walking, are called 
plantigrade, from the Latin planta, sole of the foot, and gradi, to walk. 
* The most noted are the stone marten, the baum, or pine marten, 
the fitchet, polecat, or foumart; the ermine, the weasel, the Eussian 
sable, the beaver, the raccoon, the lynx ; the red, cross, silver, white, and 
gray foxes ; the mink, the muskrat, the otter, the seal, the squirrel, the 
rabbit, the skunk, and the chinchilla; also, for the coarser furs, the 
wolverine, wolf, and bear. It is stated th&.t jive millions of the skins of 
animals applicable as furs are annually imported into Great Britain. In 

G2 



154 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

the Chart ? 1st. The pine marten, or American sable, found 
both in Europe and America; 2d, the polecat, fitchet, or 
foumart, of Europe and Asia ; 3d, the stoat or ermine, of 
Europe and America ; 4th, the common weasel. How large 
are these animals ? The marten (head and body) about 18 
or 20 inches in length ; the polecat, 17 inches ; the ermine, 
11 inches; the weasel, 8 or 9 inches. How would you de- 
scribe the general form or appearance of these animals ? 
They are long and slim animals, with short legs. Do you 
know what the common weasel, and most animals of its 
class, feed upon? Rats, mice, moles, small birds, eggs, 
and reptiles. At what season of the year should you sup- 
pose the furs of these animals would be the thickest, the 
finest, and the softest ? In the winter season, when this 
covering of fur is most needed to keep the animals warm. 
Which have the warmest hair or fur, small animals' or 
large ? Why small animals ? Because they are the most 
delicate, and need the finest covering to keej) them warm. 
Which are clothed the warmest^, animals that live in cold 
countries', or in warm v countries ? Why those which live 
in cold countries ? 

Compositions. — In accordance with previous sugges- 
tions, pages 102, 104, etc. 

Number 10. Llamas: Chart XV. 

What animals are represented in Number 10. What are 
they doing there ? Ascending the mountains with burdens 
on their backs. Where are these animals found ? What 
is their size ? What are their uses ? etc. 

The llama, sometimes called the American camel, is found 
in South America, chiefly in Chili and Peru. Its native 

the year 1851 nearly three millions of the skins of squirrels were import- 
ed into Great Britain from Russia alone ; and it is said that fifteen mil- 
lions of these little fur-bearing animals are every year captured in Rus- 
sia. Although the trade in furs is constantly diminishing, as the fur- 
bearing animals become more scarce, yet the prices of furs are gradually 
diminishing also. The use of furs is almost wholly dependent on the 
caprice of fashion. 






FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 155 

region is upon the slopes of the immense chain of the Andes. 
There are several species, both wild and tame. The wild 
llamas are vigilant and shy, living in flocks at a great alti- 
tude upon the mountains, and only descending toward the 
plains occasionally in search of food. The domesticated 
llamas, which are employed as beasts of burden, carry a 
weight of about a hundred pounds ; but they travel slowly, 
going only ten or twelve miles a day. They are remarka- 
bly sure-footed, descending steep and rugged places where 
man can pass with difficulty. During the time of the early 
Spanish history of South America, it is said that three 
hundred thousand llamas were employed in the transport 
of the produce of the silver mines of Potosi alone. But 
civilization gradually brought with it the animals of the 
old continent, and now the horse and the mule have almost 
entirely superseded the llamas as beasts of burden in the 
open country, and the sheep and the goat have taken their 
place, in a great measure, as contributors to the food and 
raiment of man. 

The llamas are of various colors, but black, brown, and 
gray are the most common. Their flesh furnishes a whole- 
some food ; and the long woolly hair with which they are 
covered forms the principal clothing of the Indians. The 
alpaca^ one of the smaller species of the llama, and which 
is never employed as a beast of burden, is highly valued 
for its soft silky hair or wool, sometimes a foot in length, 
which is woven into fabrics of great beauty. In the year 
1850 about five thousand bales of alpaca wool were export- 
ed from South America to England alone. 

Compositions. — In accordance with previous sugges- 
tions, pages 102, 104, etc. 

Representatives of some of the leading Orders and Divi- 
sions of Quadrupeds. 

These illustrations are designed to aid the teacher in 
questioning the younger pupils about some of the leading 
groups of quadrupeds, before proceeding to their more sys- 
tematic classification in Chart No. XVI. 



156 MANUAL OF INFOKMATION 

Number 11. The Monkey Tribe: Chart XV. 

Point out and name the species here represented. The 
monkeys are called Four-handed animals. Why? See 
both the fore feet and the hind feet of the gorilla. See 
how much they are formed like the thumb and fingers of 
the human hand. All the monkeys have long and flexible 
fingers, and opposable thumbs. The nails on both fingers 
and thumbs are invariably flat and expanded, like those of 
man. But though in some respects the monkeys resemble 
man, they are, nevertheless, all true quadrupeds, or " four- 
footed" animals, as, in a state of nature, they walk on " all- 
fours" — their hind feet and legs not being formed for an 
upright position. Their feet are all formed for grasping 
and climbing ; and their entire structure shows that they 
are peculiarly fitted to be inhabitants of the trees, rather 
than to walk on the earth. (See Third Reader, page 89- 
103.) 

Compositions. — In accordance with previous sugges- 
tions, pages 102, 104, etc. 

Number 12. Lions: Chart XV. 

Point out and name the animals represented here. Lion, 
lioness, and cubs or whelps. What is the lioness doing? 
The whelps? The lion? Describe the lion — his head, 
mane, body, feet, etc. How does the lioness differ from 
him ? Chiefly in the want of a mane. The toes of these 
animals are distinctly divided — five on the fore feet, and 
four on the hind feet — and all are armed with claws like 
those of the cat. What do lions feed upon ? The flesh 
of other animals. Hence they are included in the division 
Carnivorous, or " flesh-eating" animals. A full-grown lion 
has immense strength : he can crush the skull of a buffalo 
with a stroke of his paw, and carry off the body of a man, 
or antelope, as easily as a cat does a rat. (See Third Read- 
er, page 107-115.) 

Compositions. — In accordance with previous sugges- 
tions, pages 102, 104, etc. 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 157 

Number 13. Cats: Chart XV. 

Point out and name the animals here represented. Cat 
and kittens. What are the kittens doing ? The cat ? 
What group of animals, shown on the Chart, do the cat 
and kittens most resemble? The lions. Both belong to 
the same division of quadrupeds, called " the Cat Family." 
Cats also, as well as lions, live wholly on flesh, in their wild 
state, and are therefore called carnivorous. How do the 
feet of the cat differ from those of the dog ? The claics 
of the cat are retractile, those of the dog now-retractile. 
See page 152. (See Third Reader, page 122-126.) 

Compositions. — In accordance with previous sugges- 
tions, pages 102, 104, etc. 

Number 14. Rabbits: Chart XV. 

What animals are represented in No. 14? Rabbits — 
wild and tame. Which are the tame rabbits ? Those in 
front, that have the -long ears. Of the tame rabbits, ivhich 
are all of European origin, and probably descended from 
the wild rabbits, there are many varieties, some of which 
have very long ears, like those represented on the Chart. 
Did you ever see what is called the wild gray rabbit in 
this country ? Can you describe it ? The length of its 
head and body is about fifteen inches ; it weighs from two 
and a half to three pounds ; its fur is soft, and of a yellow- 
ish-brown color in summer, but in winter it has a more 
grayish appearance ; and it lives in woods and forests, and 
in the thickets bordering on cultivated grounds. Does it 
ever make burrows in the ground ? No : this animal is 
not, really, a rabbit, but a hare, although both belong to 
the same family of animals. The rabbit burrows, but the 
hare does not ; the rabbit lives in societies, the hare lives 
mostly alone ; the rabbit is born naked and blind, the hare 
is born covered with fur, and with its eyes open ; and in 
Europe the rabbit is smaller than the hare. Both are timid 
and defenceless ; but these seeming defects are beautifully 
compensated — in the hare especially — by great watchful- 



158 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

ness, acuteness of the senses, and swiftness of foot. Both 
are exclusively vegetable feeders, and, to fit them for gnaw- 
ing, have two large cutting teeth which project from the 
front of each jaw. They belong to the order of Rodent, 
or " gnawing" animals. Both the hare and the rabbit, pic- 
tured in the Third Reader, page 231, are the European 
species. 

Compositions. — In accordance with previous sugges- 
tions, pages 102, 104, etc. 

Number 15. Giraffes: Chart XV. 

What animals are represented in No. XV. ? Giraffes or 
Camelopards. Have you ever seen a giraffe? Can you 
describe the giraffe? Head often twenty feet from the 
ground; two short horns on the head, covered with a 
hairy skin; body short, sloping downward toward the 
rump, and supported upon very long legs ; fore legs appar- 
ently, lout not really longer than the others; neck exceed- 
ingly long, furnished with a short mane ; head comparative- 
ly small ; countenance exceedingly gentle and pleasing, the 
eyes being remarkably full and lustrous ; the ground color 
of the skin is yellowish, but is covered with large spots and 
patches of lighter and darker brown. 

What kind of feet has the giraffe? Cleft hoofs, like 
those of the ox; but the feet are destitute of the two little 
accessory hoofs found in all the other ruminants except the 
camels. To what class of animals, then, does the giraffe be- 
long ? The ruminants. What is it that especially distin- 
guishes the ruminants from all other animals, and why are 
they called ruminants ? Should you suppose that the gi- 
raffe can eat from the ground ? It brings its mouth to the 
ground with difficulty, and, in order to do so, stretches its 
fore legs widely apart. It seldom lowers its head to the 
ground except to drink. How, then, do you suppose the 
giraffe obtains its food ? By browsing upon the foliage of 
trees ; and, that it may readily grasp the young shoots, it 
is provided with a long and pliant tongue, which is at once 
a feeler, a grasper, and an organ of taste. See Chart. 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 159 

What is the native country of the giraffe ? Southern and 
Eastern Africa. (See, also, Third Reader, pages 115 and 
205.) 

Compositions. — In accordance with previous sugges- 
tions, pages 102, 104, etc. 

Number 16. Deer: Chart XV. 

What animals are represented in No. 16 ? Those of the 
deer kind. Do you know whether all deer have horns or 
not ? The males only have horns, with the single excep- 
tion of the reindeer. There are occasional exceptions to 
this rule, but the cases are very rare. Unlike the ox, goat, 
sheep, etc., they shed their horns at regular intervals — most 
of them annually. "What are the horns of the deer called? 
Frequently they are called antlers. Their size and the 
number of their branches increase with age. What does 
the upper figure in 'No. 16 represent? The English red 
deer or stag. This deer comes to its full growth when 
five years old, when each of its horns has five prongs or 
points, as seen in Fig. 1, No. 16. It is then called a hart, 
and the female a hind. When this animal is wounded and 
taken, it sheds tears like a child. What does the second 
figure represent? The English roebuck, the smallest of the 
English deer. Its horns are about eight or nine inches 
long, and each is divided into three small branches. What 
does the third or lower figure represent ? The wapiti, 
American stag, or round-horned elk. It has tall, round, 
branching horns, sometimes six feet high ; its color is yel- 
lowish brown ; the tail is short ; the form is stately ; and 
the height of the animal is from four and a half to five feet 
at the shoulders. It sheds its horns in February or March. 
It might be supposed that, when pursued, the branching 
horns of this animal would be greatly in its way, but they 
are not so. The animal lays them on its back, and is able 
thus to force its way through the thickets with ease. (See, 
also, Third Reader, page 209-217.) 

Compositions. — In accordance with previous sugges- 
tions, pages 102, 104, etc. 



160 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

Number 17, The Rhinoceros: Chart, XV. 

What animal is represented in No. 17 ? The rhinoceros. 
Is more than one kind or species there represented ? Two : 
the one-horned and the two-horned rhinoceros. Describe 
the animal as well as you can from the picture of it. It is 
a large, uncouth-looking animal, covered with a hard, thick, 
naked, rough skin, disposed in large folds, especially on the 
neck, shoulders, haunches, and thighs. It has three toes on 
each foot. Its most distinguishing mark, however, is the 
solid horn on its nose or snout. One species has two 
horns, the smaller being directly back of and above the 
larger. For farther description see Third Reader, page 
187. 

Compositions. — In accordance with previous sugges- 
tions, pages 102, 104, etc. 

Number 18. The Hippopotamus: Chart XV. 

What animal is represented in No. 18 ? The Mp-po-pot'- 
a-mus, a word which means "river-horse." What does 
this animal most resemble in appearance ? A gigantic 
hog, except in its short, thick, and very blunt muzzle. The 
feet have four toes, like those of the hog, terminated in as 
many separate hoofs. The flesh is said to be delicious, re- 
sembling pork in flavor. The eyes are situated high in 
the head, so that the animal, while its body is entirely cov- 
ered by the water, can look around and breathe by rais- 
ing but a very small portion of the head above the surface. 
See the lower figure. Its large teeth are very good ivory. 
For farther description see Third Reader, page 188, 189. 

Compositions. — In accordance with previous sugges- 
tions, pages 102, 104, etc. 

Number 19. Beavers : Chart XV. 

What animals are represented in No. 19? Beavers. 
From the appearance of their teeth, to what order of 
quadrupeds do they seem to belong ? To the Rodents, or 
"gnawing" quadrupeds. The beaver has two incisor or 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 161 

cutting teeth, and eight molar or grinding teeth, in each 
jaw. The incisor teeth ai - e so very large, hard, and sharp, 
that they were employed by the North American Indians 
as implements to cut bone, and to fashion their horn-tipped 
spears. What do you notice very peculiar in the form of 
these animals ? The shape of the tail, which is vei'y broad, 
scaly above, and horizontally-flattened. There are five toes 
on each of the feet, and the hinder feet are webbed, some- 
what like those of a goose. Why are the feet webbed, 
and what do webbed feet always show ? They are web- 
bed to enable the animal to swim the better ; and webbed 
feet always show that the animal is designed to pass a part 
of the time in the water. 

How large is the beaver ? Head and body about three 
feet in length ; tail about eleven inches. For what is the 
beaver specially noted ? For building dams across streams, 
and for constructing its curious houses, or dwelling-places, 
which are always partly in the water. For what is the 
beaver most valued? For its fur. In the year 1788 up- 
ward of 170,000 beaver skins were exported to Europe 
from Canada. About 100,000 beaver skins are now annu- 
ally obtained for their far in North America alone, and 
considerable quantities from Northern Asia, and Northern 
and Central Europe. Formerly beaver furs were much 
used in making hats ; but beaver hats have now in great 
part given place to hats manufactured of silk, and the 
cheaper fur of a little South American rodent, called the 
nutria, or coypou. Of the nutria, as many as 600,000 skins 
are annually imported into Great Britain from South Amer- 
ica. In 1 832 the beaver skin sold for seven dollars a pound ; 
it now sells for about a dollar and a quarter a pound. The 
nutria sells for about forty cents. (See, also, Third Reader, 
page 232.) 

Compositions. — In accordance with previous sugges- 
tions, pages 102, 104, etc. 



162 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

Number 20. Armadillos and Pangolins : Chart XV. 

"What animals are represented in No. 20 ? Those above 
are the South American Armadillos, a Spanish word which 
means cltid in armor / the three lower ones are the Scaly- 
Ant-eaters, or Pangolins. The armadillos are covered, for 
their defense, with a bony crust, or coat of mail, as their 
name implies. This is foimied of numerous many-sided 
plates, attached to the skin. These animals are roasted in 
their shells, and are considered a great delicacy by the peo- 
ple of South America. The Scaly Ant-eaters, or Pango- 
lins, found in Southern Asia and Southern Africa, have also 
a defensive armor, which consists of numerous horny scales, 
implanted in the skin like nails, and overlapping each other 
like the tiles or shingles of a roof.' For farther account of 
these animals, which belong to the order of " Toothless 
Quadrupeds," see Third Reader, pages 229, 230. 

Compositions. — In accordance with previous sugges- 
tions, pages 102, 104, etc. The teacher may now also give 
several of the groups as the subject for a composition ; or 
he may assign the ten upper groups for one composition, 
and the ten lower for another. 



CHAET No. XVI. ZOOLOGICAL: CLASSIFICA- 
TION OF ANIMALS. 

The following exercises on this Chart are designed to 
give pupils merely an outline view of the various groups 
of animals included in the first division of zoology — the 
Mammalia. It is not expected that the teacher will con- 
fine himself strictly to the outline we have given, as he 
must be guided in this matter by the ages and attainments 
of his pupils. With small children, who have not read so 
far as the Third Reader, he may limit himself to a few oral 
lessons, taking up, first, an entire order at a lesson, drawing 
his information from the Third Reader, or from any other 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 163 

source, and thus going over the entire Chart ; next, he may- 
take up, one by one, the several families, groups, or divi- 
sions, in each order ; but he should rely mainly upon such 
incidents as he may gather from various .sources, to give 
interest to his oral lessons, or "talks." Pupils who have 
read the Third Reader, however, may first go over the 
Chart in the manner we have herein designated ; and in 
subsequent exercises they may be as minute in their de- 
scriptions as their attainments will warrant, mastering not 
only the groupings into orders, families, etc., but describing 
size, form, color, habits, etc., of each animal represented. 
The teacher should require them to point out every thing 
on the Chart. Although the figures there are not suffi- 
ciently large to enable the class, or school, to see each ani- 
mal distinctly at a distance, they are large enough to pre- 
sent their general forms aud groupings ; and this is all that 
is needed here, as pupils can examine the same figures more 
minutely in their Reading-book. 

What is Zoology ? (See Chart, and also Third Reader, 
page 240.) What are the four great divisions of animals ? 
See Chart, and Third Reader, page 240, 241. The teacher 
himself may give a brief explanation of these divisions in 
an oral lesson, or, if the pupils are reading in the Third 
Reader, they may be directed to read the concluding les- 
son, page 240, and tell what they can of these divisions, 
pointing out their representative drawings on the Chart. 
They should be required, at this stage, to name the classes 
of the first division only. Let the teacher describe what a 
vertebrate animal is, and then proceed with the following. 

What four classes of animals are in the Vertebrate divi- 
sion ? See Chart. Mammalia, Birds, Reptiles, and Fishes. 
To which one of these is this Chart devoted ? The Mam- 
malia. What are Mammalia ? See Chart. Animals which 
nurse or suckle their young. What is said about includ- 
ing mankind in this division? See Chart; and Third 
Reader, page 87, Note. 

What are the five great races into which mankind are 
divided ? See Chart. Caucasian, Mongolian, Malay, Ne- 



164: MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

gro, and American. What people are included in each? 
In the Caucasian are included all the ancient and modern 
Europeans except the Fins ; also the Assyrians, Medes, 
Chaldeans, Sarmatians, Scythians, Parthians, Philistines, 
Phoenicians, Jews, Georgians, Circassians, Turks, Persians, 
Arabians, the Northern Africans, Egyptians, and Abyssin- 
ians. They have a white skin, either with a fair rosy tint, 
or inclining to brown ; red cheeks ; hair copious and black, 
or of the vai'ious lighter colors ; eyes dark in those with 
brown skin, light in the fair or rosy complexioned. The 
Caucasian has ever been the leading and conquering race. 

In the Mongolian race are included the tribes and na- 
tions of Central and Northern Asia, Chinese, Japanese, 
Siamese, Laplanders, and Esquimaux. They are character- 
ized by an olive color ; black eyes ; black, straight, strong, 
and thin hair, and little or no beard. 

In the Malay race are included the inhabitants of the 
islands of Southern Asia ; of the Moluccas, Ladrones, Phil- 
ippines ; of Australia, and of all the islands of the South 
Sea. Their color is from a light tawny to a deep brown ; 
hair black, more or less curled ; head narrow, nose full and 
broad ; mouth large. 

In the Negro race are included all the natives of Africa 
not comprised among the Caucasians. Skin and eyes black ; 
hair black and woolly ; skull compressed laterally ; fore- 
head low, narrow, and slanting ; cheek-bones prominent ; 
nose broad, thick, and flat ; and lips, particularly the upper 
one, very thick. 

In the American race are included all the aboriginal 
Americans except the Esquimaux. Perhaps, also, the Tol- 
tec family, which founded Mexico and Peru, must be con- 
sidered an exception. Skin dark, and more or less of a red 
tint ; hair black, straight, and strong ; beard small ; fore- 
head usually low ; eyes deep ; face broad ; mouth large ; 
and lips rather thick. 



FOK OBJECT LESSONS. 165 

First Class of the Vertebrates : The Mammalia. 
First Order. Quadru'mana, or Four-handed Animals. 

In the classification of the Mammalia, what is the First 
Order, and what kind of animals does it embrace ? Why 
are • they called quadru'manous, or four-handed animals ? 
Because both their fore feet and their hind feet have 
thumbs and fingers which bear considerable resemblance 
to the human hand, and they use these four hands to take 
hold of things, to climb, etc. Point out on the Chart the 
two great divisions of the Monkey tribes. Monkeys of the 
Old World, and Monkeys of the New World. What are 
the three divisions of the Monkeys of the Old World ? 
Apes, Monkeys proper, and Baboons. See Third Reader, 
pages 89, 90. What are the most noted of the Apes ? The 
Orang-outangs. Interesting facts about the Apes. Third 
Reader, page 90-94. About the Monkeys and Baboons. 
See Third Reader, page 95-101. What can you tell about 
the Monkeys of South America ? 

Sub-order: Cheir'optera, or Hand-winged Animals. — 
What sub-order of animals is by some included among the 
Quadru'mana, or four-handed animals ? Bats and Lemurs. 
Why? Because the Bats, which are sometimes called 
hand-winged animals, hold on to things both by their feet, 
and by their wings — the wings having little hooks, which 
answer the purpose of hands ; and the Lemurs have thumbs 
and fingers on their hind feet as well as on their fore feet, 
very much like the monkeys. Mention some facts about 
the bats and lemurs. Third Reader, page 104-106. 

Second Order. Carniv'ora, or Flesh-eating Quadru- 
peds. 

What does the Second Order of the Mammalia include ? 
See Chart. What is the meaning of Carnivorous ? Flesh- 
eating. Point out on the Chart and name the five families 
or divisions of animals included in this Order. See Chart. 
Animals of the Cat kind, Dog kind, Weasel kind, Bear kind, 
and Seal kind. Point out on the Chart and name the lead- 



166 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

ing animals of the Cat kind represented there. Lions, Ti- 
gers, Leopards, Lynxes, Tiger-cats, and Wild-cats. Let 
another pupil point out and name the leading animals of 
the Dog kind. Dogs, Foxes, Wolves, Jackals, and Hyenas. 
The hyenas are by some made to constitute a separate fam- 
ily. Another pupil, the animals of the Weasel kind. Pine 
Marten, Mink, Sable, Otter, Ermine, Skunk, and Common 
Weasel. Another, the animals of the Bear kind. Grison, 
Raccoon, Badger, Coati, Beai", Wolverine, Panda, and Ratel. 
Another, the animals of the Seal kind. Common Seal, Sea 
Bear, Sea Lion, and Walrus ; also, the Elephant Seal, Pied 
Seal, Mitred Seal, Crested Seal, and Leopard Seal. 

/Sub -order: I?isectivora, or Insect-eaters. — What sub- 
order is by some included in this Second Order ? Point 
out and name the animals of the Shrew kind represented 
on the Chart. The common Shrew, Oared Shrew, Hedge- 
hog, and the Moles. 

In the next place, the teacher, to vary the exercises, 
should point out with a pointer the carnivorous quadru- 
peds, in their order, beginning with the Lion, and, as he 
places his pointer on each, require the class to call its name. 
Then call on the pupils, individually, to tell what they can 
about it, such as its native country, its size, its habits, col- 
or, and any anecdotes about it which they can remember, 
either from the Third Reader, or from any other book. 

Third Order. Ungulata, or Hoofed Quadrupeds. 

What does the Third Order of the Mammalia include ? 
See Chart. What are its three great divisions? Let the 
pupil point out these divisions on the Chart — the Pachy- 
dermata, or Thick-skinned ; the Solidungula, or Solid-hoof- 
ed; and the Huminantia, or Cud-chewing — carrying the 
pointer over the animals in each division. It may be re- 
marked here, that the animals of the first two divisions 
which we have given on the Chart were embraced by Cu- 
vier in only one division, the " JPachydermata, or Thick- 
skinned ;" but later writers have made the two divisions 
which we have given on the Chart, and others still have 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 167 

made a separate division for the animals of the " Swine 
kind." Point out and name the principal animals in the 
first, or " Thick-skinned" division. The different kinds or 
species of Hog, the American Tapir, the little Syrian Hyrax, 
and the South American Peccary. 

Point out and name the animals of the Second Division 
represented on the Chart. Wild Ass, Zebra, and Horse. 
Point out on the chart and name the seven families of the 
Ruminant or Cud-chewing animals. Animals of the Cam- 
el, Giraffe, Deer, Ox, Sheep, Goat, and Antelope kinds. 
Now point out and name separately the leading animals of 
the Camel kind represented on the Chart. Llama, Arabian 
Camel, and Bactrian Camel. Of the Giraffe kind. The 
Giraffe only. Of the Deer kind. Moose or Elk, Rein- 
deer, Java Musk Deer, common American Deer, and Amer- 
ican Stag ; also the Musk Deer of Thibet, English Fallow 
Deer, Bengal Hog Deer, Roebuck, and Nepaul Stag. An- 
imals of the Ox kind. African Buffalo, Musk Ox, Zebu, 
the Gnu, and American Buffalo or Bison. Animals of the 
Sheep kind. Corsican and African Wild Sheep, Rocky 
Mountain Wild Sheep, and common Sheep. Of the Goat 
kind. Common Wild Goat, European Ibex, and Cashmere 
Goat. Animals of the Antelope kind. The Gazelle, Elk 
Antelope, Chamois, common Antelope, and Prong-horned 
Antelope ; also the Neel-Ghau, Chickara, Bearded Ante- 
lope, Algazel, and Springbok. 

The teacher should next go over this entire Order as 
directed under the Second Order, page 127. 

Sub-order : Edentata, or Toothless Quadrupeds. — What 
sub-order of Animals is by some included in this Third Or- 
der ? The Edentata, or Toothless Quadrupeds. Point out 
and name the animals in this division. Duck-billed Water 
Mole, Great Ant-eater, Long-tailed Ant-eater, Cloaked Ar- 
madillo, Six-banded Armadillo, Porcupine Ant-eater, and 
Yellow -throated Sloth. Mention some facts concerning 
these " Toothless Quadrupeds." Third Reader, pages 229, 
230. 



168 



MANUAL OF INFORMATION. 



Fourth Order. Rodentia, or Gnawing Quadrupeds. 

What kind of animals does the Fourth Order of the 
Mammalia include ? The Rodentia, or Gnawing Quadru- 
peds. See Chart. Why is the name Gnawers given to 
them? Third Reader, page 231. Point out and name 
the animals of this Order represented on the Chart. Men- 
tion some facts and incidents about these animals. Third 
Reader, pages 232, 235. 

Fifth Order. Marsupialia, or Pouched Quadrupeds. 

What kind of animals does the Fifth Order include ? 
The Marsupial, or Pouched Quadrupeds. See Chart. Point 
out and name the animals of this class represented on the 
Chart. Mention some facts about them. Third Reader, 
pages 236, 237. 

Sixth Order. Cetacea, the Whale Tribe. 

What kind of animals does the Sixth Order include ? 
The Cetacea, or animals of the Whale kind. Why are 
these animals classed among quadrupeds ? Third Reader, 
pages 238, 239.* Point out and name the animals of this 
Order represented on the Chart. The Narwhalsf (or Sea 

* The whales, although belonging 
to the Mammals, are, indeed, desti- 
tute of both hands and feet ; yet the 
frame-work of their flippers (see cut, 
page 238, Third Header) is much like 
that of a hand, as may be seen in the 
accompanying drawing, representing 
a nipper, and also its bones uncovered. 
The flippers are used for balancing 
rather than for swimming. It is with 
the tail, mostly, that the whale swims. 
Its immense power can be judged of by 
its breadth, which often is twenty feet, 
f The body of the narwhal is from thirty to forty feet long, and its 
straight pointed tusk from five to ten feet. The uses of this tusk are 
not well known. Some suppose it uses its tusk to dig up sea-weed for 
food ; others, that it kills its prey with it. The Gveenlanders use this 
tusk in the manufacture of spears, arrows, hooks, etc. 




Flipper of the Whale. 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 169 

Unicorns), Greenland Whale, Spermaceti Whale,* and the 
Great Northern Rorqual. What is the length of the lat- 
ter? More than a hundred feet. For other animals of 
the whale kind, see Third Reader, page 239. 

Compositions. — Let the teacher assign such portions of 
this Chart as subjects for compositions as he may deem 
appropriate. 



CHART No. XVII. ZOOLOGICAL. 

Second Class of the Vertebrates : Birds. 

This Chart is designed to give teachers and pupils a gen- 
eral outline view of the seven great orders or classes into 
which Birds are divided, and to present to their notice 

* Spermaceti, obtained from the spermaceti whale, is a fatty matter, 
which, when separated from the oil, and purified, becomes a white, semi- 
transparent mass, much used for making candles. Spermaceti is found, 
mixed with oil, in a large reservoir in the head of the spermaceti whale. 
A hole is cut in the head of the whale by its captors, and this mixture 
is baled out with buckets, as from a well. Ten or twelve barrels of this 
mixture are obtained from a sperm whale of ordinary size. That waxy 
substance, of a musky odor, called ambergris, which is highly valued as 
a material in perfumery, is found in the intestines of the sperm whale. 
It is also often found floating on the surface of the ocean, in regions fre- 
quented by whales. 

It is the fat of whales which produce the "whale-oil." This fat of the 
whale, called blubber, encases the whole animal, being mingled with the 
fibres of its enormously thick skin. The blubber and skin are not un- 
frequently two feet in thickness, and weigh in some cases thirty tons. 

The whale has a curious apparatus for spouting through its nostrils, 
which are called "blow-holes." Under the nostrils are two large pouch- 
es, like vast bellows, which can be filled with water taken in^hy the 
mouth. When the whale wishes to spout it compresses these pouches, 
and expels the water with great force through the blow-holes, the outer 
valves of which are pushed open. 

The well-known whale-bone of commerce, used principally for ribs or 
stretchers of umbrellas, for canes, whips, etc., and as a substitute for 
bristles in brushes, is taken from the upper jaw of the whale — chiefly 
from the Greenland whale, or from a similar whale in the Southern seas. 

H 



170 MANUAL OF INFOKMATION 

some leading species in each order. By locating these 
leading divisions as on a map, and thus presenting them to 
the eye, it is believed that pupils will learn them much 
easier, and with more interest, and retain them much lon- 
ger, than when the same knowledge is acquired through 
the medium of written description only. For the mode of 
conducting the exercises on this Chart we refer, in addition 
to what is here given, to the suggestions made under the 
head of the preceding Chart, No. XVI. What has been 
given under the head of " Ornithology, or the Natural His- 
tory of Birds," in the Fourth Reader of the " School and 
Family Series," and to which we refer, will render it un- 
necessary to enter into full descriptions here. 

What are the seven orders into which Birds are divided ? 
Point them out on the Chart. 1st. Birds of Prey; 2d. 
Perching or Singing Birds; 3d. Climbers ; 4th. Scratchers ; 
5th. Runners ; 6th. Waders ; 7th. Swimmers. 

First Order. Birds of Prey. 

To the Birds of Prey has been given the Latin name 
Maptores, signifying robbers ; and many of these birds are 
not only robbers, but assassins and butchers. They are 
distinguished by their powerful bill or beak and their claws. 
The former has the upper mandible longer than the lower 
one, strongly hooked at the tip, or curved throughout its 
whole length, very sharp at the point, and sometimes armed 
with teeth on the margins. The feet also are powerful, 
composed of four toes, armed with long, curved, and acute 
claws. See the claws and bills of the Eagles represented 
on the Chart. The Birds of Prey are divided into three 
groups or families : Falcons, Vultures, and Owls. See 
Chart. 

1st. Falcons. — These include the Eagles and the Hawks. 
See Fourth Reader, pages 84-96. If pupils have read the 
Fourth Reader, let them describe the Falcons, pointing to 
the Chart, telling size, color, habits, etc., and such anecdotes 
or incidents of each as they remember, or such as they have 
heard, or such as they have read in other books. Or, let 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 171 

the teacher describe these birds, and let the pupils after- 
ward tell what they can remember of each ; or, let them 
write down as much as they can of what has thus been told 
them, and thus form a series of compositions on the sub- 
ject. Let them refer to, or recite, any poetry descriptive 
of these birds. 

2d. Vultures. See Chart ; and Fourth Reader, page 96. 

3d. Owls. See Chart ; and Fourth Reader, page 97. 

Let pupils tell what they can of each group or family — 
as to their characteristic features, species named or repre- 
sented on the Chart; their size, color, habits, incidents, 
anecdotes, poetry, etc. ; also name any birds in the country 
around which belong to either division. 

Second Order. Sparrows, Perchers, or Singing Birds. 

This order includes a great variety of birds, whose legs 
and feet are generally slight, and whose claws, although 
curved, never constitute powerful hooked talons, as in the 
birds of prey. The Sparrows or Perchers have four toes — 
three directed forward, and one backward. They have 
been divided into the four following groups, distinguished 
by peculiarities in the form of the bill : 

1st. Toothed-bills.— See Chart, and Fourth Reader, 
pages 102-108. The peculiarity in the form of the bill is 
well characterized in the head of the Shrike. See Chart. 
Let the pupils name any Irirds in the country around which 
belong to this division. Also describe those represented 
on the Chart. Give poetry, etc. 

2d. Cleft-bills.— See Chart, and Fourth Reader, pages 
108-118. For the characteristic form of the bill, see the 
Whippoorwill, on the Chart. Name and describe birds of 
this division as before directed. Poetry, etc. 

3d. Cone-bills.— See Chart, and Fourth Reader, pages 
118-129. For the characteristic form of the bill, see head 
of Grosbeak on the Chart. Name and describe birds of 
this division, as before directed. The Bobolink is the rice- 
bird of the Carolinas. See page 232. Not only the com- 
mon Starling, but also the Hawfinch, Chaffinch, Linnet, 



172 MANUAL OF INFOKMATION 

Goldfinch, Siskin, and Greenfinch, are European birds. 
There is also a beautiful American goldfinch, commonly 
called Yellow-bird. 

4th. Thin-bills. — See Chart, and Fourth Reader, pages 
129-133. The Humming-birds have the long and thin bills 
which well characterize this group. Name and describe as 
before directed. 

Third Order. Climbers. 

These birds are distinguished from the Sparrows or 
Perchers chiefly by the peculiar arrangement of the toes, 
of which two are directed forward and two backward. 
This enables them to climb trees with great facility. Let 
pupils name and describe any birds in the country around 
which belong to this Order. Also describe those repre- 
sented on the Chart. Give poetry, etc. See Fourth Read- 
er, page 133-140. 

Fourth Order. Scratchers. 

These birds, which include our common fowls, are so 
named in allusion to the habit of scratching in the ground 
in search of food. They have generally small heads and 
stout legs, and the males are usually adorned with mag- 
nificent colors. The wings are usually short and weak, 
and the flight of the birds is neither powerful nor prolong- 
ed. Let pupils name and describe as many of the birds of 
this Order as they can, including common fowls of differ- 
ent varieties — turkeys, peacocks, partridges, quails, etc. See 
Fourth Reader, page 140. 

Sub-order: Doves. — By some the doves are included 
with the Scratchers. In internal structure, however, they 
differ somewhat from them; their wings are also usual- 
ly longer and wider, and their flight rapid and long-contin- 
ued. In their mode of drinking they differ from all oth- 
er birds ; for, instead of taking up a small quantity of wa- 
ter in the mouth, and then swallowing it by raising the 
head, they immerse the bill in water, and drink without 
stopping until they are satisfied. Let pupils name and de- 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 173 

scribe birds which belong to this division. Poetry, etc. 
See Fourth Reader, page 143-146. 

Fifth Order. Runners. 

For description, see Fourth Reader, page 146-149. Let 
the pupil name and describe birds of this Order, as before 
directed. 

Sixth Order. Waders. 

For description, see Fourth Reader, page 149-154. Let 
the pupils name and describe birds of this Order which he 
has seen ; also others represented on the Chart. Poetry, etc. 

Seventh Order. Swimmers. 

These birds are characterized by the peculiar structure 
of their feet, which are furnished with webs between the 
toes to adapt them to swimming. Let the pupil describe 
as matiy species of this Order as he can, and tell wherein 
they differ from each other — such as ducks, geese, swans, 
divers or loons, etc. See Fourth Reader, page 154. 

Compositions.' — After the pupils have gone over each 
division or group on the Chart, the same may -be assigned 
to them as subjects for compositions. Thus the first Or- 
der would furnish three subjects for compositions, the sec- 
ond Order four, etc. 



CHART No. XYIII. ZOOLOGY— continued. 
Third Class of tlte Vertebrates : Reptiles. 
The Reptiles, with the exception of a few tortoises, are 
carnivorous animals. They have a slow circulation ; their 
blood is said to be cold — that is, it is but little above the 
temperature of the surrounding medium, whether air or 
water, in which they live ; their movements are generally 
slow, crawling or swimming ; their habits are sluggish ; 
their sensations obtuse ; and, in cold or temperate climates, 
they pass nearly the whole winter in a state of lethargy. 



174 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

For a more full, general description, see Fifth Reader, 
page 51-54. 

They have been divided by most naturalists into four 
orders : Chelonians, or Turtles ; Saurians, or Lizard Rep- 
tiles ; Ophidians, or Serpents ; and Amphibians, or Batrach- 
ians. 

First Order. Chelonians, or Turtles. 

First Division. — Land, Marsh, and River Tortoises. 
— Let pupils name- and describe such of these as they have 
seen, the common mud-turtles, and probably some others. 
Also those represented on the Chart, telling size, color, 
habits, etc. See Fifth Reader, pages 5 V, 58. 

Second Division. — Marine and River Turtles. — Let 
pupils name and describe these also. Have they seen any . 
of them ? Have they eaten turtle-soup ? etc. See Fifth 
Reader, pages 59, 60. 

Second Order. Saurians, or Lizard-Reptiles. 

First Division. — The Lizard Group. — Let pupils name 
and describe such of these as they have seen, if any. Also 
those represented on the Chart, telling size, color, habits, 
etc. See Fifth Reader, page 61-64. 

Seco7id Division. — The Crocodile Group. — What are 
the principal families in this group ? Name and describe 
them : incidents, anecdotes, poetry, etc. See Fifth Read- 
er, page 64-68. 

Third Order. Ophidians, or Serpents. 

What species are represented on the Chart ? Describe 
each. How many kinds or species of serpents that you 
have seen can you name ? How many species are found in 
New York and the New England states ? In Britain ? In 
Ireland ? Give what farther account you can of the ser- 
pents ; anecdotes, incidents, poetry, etc. See Fifth Read- 
er, page 68-72. 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 175 

Fourth Order. Amphibians, or Batrachians. 

What are the principal groups of the Amphibians? 
Frogs, Toads, Salamanders, and Sirens. What is it that 
gives these animals their chief interest ? The curious 
changes which most of them undergo — from the character 
of fishes in their infancy, when they breathe by means of 
gills, to the nature and habits of true reptiles at a later pe- 
riod, when they breathe by means of lungs. Did you ever 
see tadpoles or polliwogs? Describe them. Do you know 
what they become as they grow older? Did you ever 
watch these changes ? It might be interesting for you to 
take a young polliwog, confine it in an artificial pond, and 
see what changes it passes through. Describe the Am- 
phibians represented on the Chart. See Fifth Reader, 
page 72-74. 

Compositions, — Let pupils write compositions about the 
Reptiles, one composition for each Order; and after that 
let them embrace the whole in one composition. Let them 
write as much as they can of what they themselves have 
seen. 

m 

Fourth Class of Vertebrates : Fishes. 

How many kinds or species "offish can each one mention 
that he has seen ? Write down their names. How many 
of these can each one describe ? Describe the different 
fins of a fish. See Fifth Reader, page 227. 

What are the three great leading Orders of Fishes ? 
1st. Spine-rayed bony fishes ; 2d. Soft-rayed bony fishes ; 
3d. Cartilaginous fishes. Very different systems for the 
classification of fishes have been adopted by different wri- 
ters. See the classification given by Agassiz, Fifth Read- 
er, page 227. 

First Order. Spine-rayed Bony Fishes. 

What is the largest and leading family, or group, in this 
Order ? The Perches. What species of this group have 
you seen ? Describe as many of them as you can, as to 



176 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

size, color, habit, where found, etc. Mention other groups 
or families of this Order. Gurnards, Breams, Maigres, 
Scaly-fins, Mackerel, Gobies, and Blennies. Tell what you 
can of each group : description, incidents, anecdotes, poet- 
ry, etc. See Fifth Reader, page 228-242. 

Second Order. Soft-rayed Bony Fishes. 

First Division. — Fishes with Abdominal Ventral 
Fins. — The fishes of this division have ventral fins attach- 
ed to the abdomen, behind the pectoral fins. What are 
the leading groups or families in this division ? The Carp, 
Pike, Cat-fish, Salmon and Trout, and Herring and Pilchard 
families. What can you tell about the carp family ? and 
what kinds of fish do they embrace ? About the pike fam- 
ily ? The cat-fish ? The salmon and trout ? The herring 
and pilchard family ? In what family is the common shad 
found ? See Fifth Reader, page 242-251. 

Second Division. — Fishes with Ventral Fins beneath 
the Pectorals. — What are the principal groups or fami- 
lies in this division ? The Cod, the Flat-fish, and the salt- 
water Suckers. Name some of the fish included in the cod 
family. What can you say of the cod-fish ? Describe the 
flat-fish, and name some of the species. The salt-water 
suckers. See Fifth Reader,' page 251-256. 

Third Division. — The Eel Family. — These are some- 
times called the Apodal division, or " footless" division, be- 
cause they are without ventral fins ; and the fins in fish are 
supposed to take the place of feet in the mammalia and rep- 
tiles, and of wings in birds. Let pupils tell what species 
or kinds of eels they have seen. Describe those represent- 
ed on the Chart. See Fifth Reader, page 256-258. 

Fourth Division. — Fishes with Tufted Gills. — The 
fishes of this division are characterized by having the gills 
in small tufts, instead of being comb-like. Here are found 
the Pipe-fishes, and that curious fish, the Hippocampus, or 
Hudson River Sea-horse. Describe them. All the fishes 
of this division have the body covered with angular, bony 
plates, so that the body is many-sided. See, also, Fifth 
Reader, pages 258, 259. 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 177 

Fifth Division. — Fishes with Soldered Jaws. — These 
fishes are distinguished by a peculiarity in having certain 
bones of the head firmly united, while in other fishes they 
are separate. They embrace those peculiar fishes, the Bal- 
loon and Globe fishes. Describe them. See Fifth Reader, 
page 259. 

Third Order. Cartilaginous Fishes. 

The fishes of this order have their skeletons of cartilage, 
instead of bone. They embrace the Shark, Sturgeon, Chi- 
msera, Ray, and Lamprey groups, or families. Describe the 
sharks. The sturgeons. The chimseras. The rays. The 
lampreys. See Fifth Reader, page 260-267. 

Now let pupils recapitulate what they have been over ; 
naming the orders, and their divisions, and pointing them 
out on the Chart. 

Describe the Aquarium • the principles on which fish and 
plants live in it, etc. See Fifth Reader, page 268-271. 

Compositions. — See the suggestions for compositions 
about Reptiles. Also, let them Avrite upon the subject of 
the Aquarium. 



CHART No. XIX. BOTANICAL. 
Forms of Leaves, Stems, Hoots, and Flowers. 

Chart No. XIX. exhibits some of the prominent forms 
which vegetation assumes. Its study will be found well 
adapted to cultivate in children the powers of observation, 
as it will present to them numerous but common peculiari- 
ties in the outward forms of plants which may hitherto 
have escaped their notice. It will lead them to compare, 
and contrast, and- to notice differences where before they 
had not observed them ; and it will prepare them to de- 
scribe plants in intelligible language, and to understand 
the descriptions of others. Moreover, the forms here il- 
lustrated are not only common things which Nature has 
lavishly spread before us to please the eye, and to cultivate 

PI 2 



178 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

a taste for harmonious variety, but they are such as must 
constitute, from the very nature of things, the only true 
and proper introduction to the study of descriptive Bot- 
any. If children were taught to notice and carefully ex- 
amine whatever is presented to the eye, and were supplied 
with words for the ideas thus obtained, they would be 
found far advanced in science long before the time when 
they are usually thought fitted to enter upon its study. 
But the truth is, a very great part of science is such a 
knowledge of*common things as children are delighted to 
become familiar with, and which they acquire with the 
greatest ease in the natural and healthful exercise of their 
faculties. 

Children of any age may study the forms here present- 
ed, and understand them ; but while studying them they 
should be presented, by the teacher, with the real objects 
from nature, that they may readily associate the represent- 
ation with the reality ; and when the forms have thus be- 
come familiar to them, they should be accustomed to illus- 
trate them by similarly-shaped leaves, stems, flowers, etc., 
gathered by themselves. Children will be found to take a 
great interest in these forms of the vegetable world, which 
will supply them with an infinite variety of objects for that 
cultivation of the perceptive faculties which lies at the basis 
of all sound and truly practical education. 

In going over the exercises on this Chart, pupils should 
describe the forms of the leaves, roots, flowers, etc., and tell 
wherein those that are somewhat similar really differ from 
each other, before they are supplied with the words which 
designate these differences. After having experienced the 
need, of such words, they will be the more likely to remem- 
ber them. This is also in the true order of Nature's teach- 
ings ; first, the ideas, and then the words to represent them. 

I. General Forms and Arrangement of Leaves. 

[Specimens of net-veined leaves, with and without leaf-stalks, and stip '-files.] 

At A, on the Chart, are shown the parts of a complete 
net-veined leaf. The leaf part proper is called the Lamina, 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 179 

or Blade ; the end, tip, or point of the leaf is called the 
d'-pex ; the middle vein the midrib ; the branches from it 
are called veins ; and the little branches from the latter, 
veinfets. These veinlets subdivide again and again, until 
they become so small as to be invisible to the naked eye. 
Through the fibres of the veins, veinlets, etc., the sap is 
carried to every part of the leaf. The Pet'-i-ole is the leaf- 
stalk, connecting the leaf with the branch or stem. Some 
leaves have long pct'-i-oles, some short, and some have none. 
Those which have none are said to be ses'-site, or " seated." 
The stip'-ules are two little leaves sometimes found at the 
base of the pet'-i-ole. See Weeping Willow. Pupils should 
make drawings of the leaf, as shown at A, and write or 
print the names of the several parts. The leaves brought 
in as specimens should also be examined by the pupils, and 
their several parts and appendages pointed out and named 
by them. 

No. 1. A Lin'-e-ar leaf is narrow, several times longer 
than wide, and with the sides nearly parallel. Examples : 
Saffron, Tuberose, Hemlock, Balsam Fir. Let pupils bring 
in samples for illustration, in every case, if joossible. 

No. 2. Lan' '-ce-o-late, or "lance-shaped," is long and ta- 
pering, as the Weeping Willow. 

No. 3. El-lip '-ti-cal, is oval-shaped, twice or thrice as 
long as broad, and with the two ends alike in width. How 
does it differ from the lan'-ce-o-late leaf? From the o'-vate 
leaf? 

No. 4. O'-vdte, or " egg-shaped," with the broader end 
downward. China Aster, Flowering Almond, Water Plan- 
tain. 

No. 5. Ob-lan' -ce-o-late, the same as lan'-ce-o-late, except 
that the tapering end is at the base instead of the apex. 

No. 6. Ob-o'-vate, the same as ovate, except that the nar- 
rower end is downward. White Coxcomb, Smooth Alder, 
Daisy. 

No. 7. Cu'-ne-dte, or " wedge-shaped," tapering down- 
ward to a point, by nearly straight lines, like a wedge. 

No. 8. Sag'-it-tate, or " arrow-shaped," tapering upward 



180 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

to a point with the base two-pointed downward. See most 
of the species of Sagittaria, or Arrowhead, also Field Bind- 
weed. 

No. 9. Au-ric' -u-late, or " eared," having two blunt pro- 
jections, or ears, at the base. Ex. Sage ; one species of the 
Magnolia. 

No. 10. Has'-tate, or " spear-shaped," with spreading and 
pointed lobes or projections at the base. Ex. The upper 
leaves of Bittersweet ; Sweet Potato. 

No. 11. This is a common form of the o'-vate leaf. This 
is pointed at the apex ; the other (No. 4) is rounded. Pu- 
pils can easily find leaves of this form. 

No. 12. Cord' -ate, or "heart-shaped," having the base 
strongly notched or rounded in to a point, where the pet'- 
i-ole or leaf-stalk is attached. Ex. Lilac, Sunflower, Morn- 
ing-glory, Catalpa. Those which are only partially cordate, 
as the leaves of the black walnut, sugar-maple, red maple, 
and apricot, are called sw5-cordate. Ob-cord'-ate is in- 
versely heart-shaped, that is, having the strong notch at the 
apex instead of the base. Ex. Catnip, leaflets of Wood- 
sorrel. 

No. 13. Men' -i-fortn, or "kidney-shaped," like the cord- 
ate leaf, but rounder, and broader than long. Ex. White 
Snake-root, or Wild Ginger (Asarum Canadense), and 
Blood-root. 

No. 14. Pelt' -ate, or " shield-shaped," generally roundish, 
or orbicular, and having the leaf-stalk attached near the 
centre of the lower surface of the leaf, instead of the base. 
Ex. Nasturtion, Mandrake, Water-shield or Water-target 
(Mrasenia peltata), Sacred-bean (JVelumbium luteum), Cas- 
tor-oil Plant. 

No. 15. Lobed and sin'-u-ate, a leaf having rounded in- 
cisions extending about half way from the margin to the 
midrib. The parts separated by the incisions are called 
lobes. Ex. Post-oak. The separated parts in the cleft and 
parted leaves (Nos. 16 and IV) are also called lobes. 

No. 16 Cleft, when the incisions extend half way down 
or more, and are sharp. Ex. several species of Oak. The 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 181 

radish leaf, which is cleft, is called lyrate, because the end 
lobe is largest and rounded. 

No. 17. Parted, when the incisions nearly reach the mid- 
rib, or the base of the blade, as in No. 28. 

No. 18. Divided, when the incisions extend quite to the 
midrib, or to the leaf-stalk, as in No. 29. 

No. 19. Pin'-nate, or "feathered," haviag little leaves, 
called leaflets, arranged on the sides of a main leaf-stalk, in 
the form of a feather. These are compound leaves, and 
some of them have an odd leaflet at the apex, some have 
a tendril there, and some have neither. Ex. Senna, Locust, 
Rose, Pea, Parsnip. Sometimes the little leaflets them- 
selves become pinnate ; and the whole may be twice-pin- 
nate, thrice-pinnate, etc. In the Honey-locust we some- 
times see the pinnate, bi-pinnate, and tri-pinnate leaves cu- 
riously combined. Children may find abundant examples 
of these pinnate leaves, which they should compare, and 
tell wherein they differ. Ex. Bladder-senna. 

No. 20. Pal'-mate, or dig'-it-ate, are those in which the 
leaflets, borne on the very tip of the leaf-stalk, are separa- 
ted by deep divisions so as to represent the palm of the 
hand with the fingers. A palmate leaf is, properly, Sbflve- 
fingered leaf, as in the Ohio Buck-eye {JEsculus glabra) ; 
but the term is also applied to a leaf with any number of 
divisions. Some Lupines have nine or eleven leaflets, the 
Horse-chestnut has seven, the Clover three, Monkshood 
three to five, Hemp five to seven. 

No. 21. Per-fo' -li-ate leaves are those in which the stem 
appears to run through the blade of the leaf near one end, 
as in the Bellwort (Uvidaria perfoliata). Generally the 
upper leaves become less and less perfoliate. In some spe- 
cies of the Solomon's Seal the leaves are clasping around 
the stem, having at first sight the appearance of being per- 
foliate. See, also, Opium Poppy. 

No. 22. Connate-per-fo-li-ate, or doubly perfoliate leaves, 
are those in which the broad bases of opposite leaves are 
grown together, so as to represent one round leaf with the 
stem running through its centre. Ex. The true Honey- 
suckles. 



182 MANUAL OF INFOEMATION 

No. 23. Eq' -ui-tant, or straddling, in which each outer 
leaf covers the next inner one, like the leaves of the Iris, or 
Flower-de-luce. It was from their straddling over each 
other, like a man on horseback, that the botanist Linnasus 
gave them this name. 

"No. 24. Whorled, when there are three or more leaves in 
a circle or whorl, on one joint of the stem. Ex. Red Lily. 

No. 25. Opposite, when there is a pair of leaves on each 
joint of the stem, and one is directly opposite the other. 
Leaves are alternate when only a single leaf appears at 
each joint; and in this case the leaves are really arranged 
in a spiral form around the stem. 

Nos. 26, 27, 28, 29. Three-lobed, Three-cleft, Three-parted, 
and Three-divided. These have also the palmate form, 
because the incisions all point to the summit of the leaf- 
stalk, or base of the leaf, like the fingers of the hand. 
Those directly above them on the Chart have the pinnate, 
or feathered form, because the incisions all point toward 
the midrib, and are therefore similar to a feather in their 
arrangement. The Red or Soft Maple, and the Sugar-ma- 
ple have the leaves ^alvasLte^fve-lobed, and cordate, or sub- 
cordate, at the base. 

Spelling. — 1st. The younger pupils, after examining 
these forms of leaves on the Chart, and noticing their 
names, may form these names on the frame, with the Type 
Letter-cards. 

2d. Others may write or print them on their slates, or on 
the blackboard. 

3d. These words may also be used for a regular spelling 
lesson ; the pupils now being required to define them, hav- 
ing already obtained ideas of their true meaning.* 

Drawing, — 1st. These forms of leaves will furnish good 

* The practice of requiring pupils to spell and define long lists of 
words, of whose meaning and use they are otherwise ignorant, we regard 
as an inversion of the order of Nature, by placing ivords before ideas, 
and hence opposed to the " development" or "object" method of instruc- 
tion. We doubt if it is ever desirable, even for advanced students, to 
learn the meaning of words before there is any occasion for their use. 



FOE, OBJECT LESSONS. 183 

drawing exercises for the younger pupils, while the prac- 
tice of copying them will do much to fix their outlines in 
the memory. See page 53. 

2d. After a pupil has made drawings of these from the 
Chart, he should draw from Nature, selecting similarly 
formed leaves for his copies. 

Composition. — Let the pupils write compositions under 
this head, describing the general forms and arrangement 
of leaves, and, in particular, describing leaves which tbey 
themselves have obtained — where they obtained them, the 
kind of tree, incidents, etc. 

II. Forms of the Margins of Leaves. 

[Leaves to illustrate these for ms should he brought in hy the pupils.] 

Those leaves which have their general outline completely 
filled out, so that their margin is an even line, as in Nos. 1, 
3, 4, 5, 6, etc., are said to be entire. Ex. Quince, Lilac, Lily. 

No. 30. Ser'-rate, or " saw-toothed," is when the margin 
is cut into sharp teeth, like those of a saw, and pointing 
forward. Ex. Thorn, Apple, Pear, Peach, Almond, Hemp, 
Hickory, many of the roses, etc. 

No. 31. Dent'-ate, or "toothed," when the teeth point 
outward instead of forward : as in the Red Beech, where 
they are coarsely toothed, and in the White Beech, where 
they are slightly toothed. See, also, Witch-hazel, Hore- 
hound, Hydrangea, Primrose, etc. If the teeth are very 
fine the margin is said to be den-tic' -u-late, as in the Pump- 
kin, Gourd, Squash, Cardinal-flower. If the teeth are them- 
selves toothed, it is doubly dentate. 

No. 32. Cre'-nate, or " scalloped," when the teeth are 
broad and rounded. The margin of No. 14 is slightly cre- 
nate. Ex. Hollyhock, Daisy, Cowslip, Scarlet Geranium. 
When the notches are very small, it is called cr en' -u-late. 

No. 33. Re-pand', undulate, or wavy, when the margin 
forms a wavy line, bending slightly inward and outward. 
Ex. Deadly Nightshade. 

No. 34. Sin'-u-ate, or " deep-curved," having deep round- 
ed openings, as seen in the leaves of the White Oak. 



184 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

No. 35. In-cis'ed, "cut," or "jagged," when the mai-gin 
is divided, often irregularly, by deep and sharp incisions. 
[Spelling, drawing, and compositions, as before directed.] 

III. Forms of the Apexes, or Ends of Leaves. 

[These should be illustrated by specimens.] 

a. Acu' '-min-ate, when the apex is prolonged into a nar- 
rowed or tapering point. 

b. A-cute', when the apex is an acute angle merely — less 
tapering than the other. 

c. Ob-tuse' , when the apex is blunt or rounded. 

d. Trun'-cate, when the apex appears as if cut off square. 
Ex. Tulip-tree. 

e. JE-mar' -gin-ate, having a small notch at the end. 

f. Ob-cord' -ate, inversely heart-shape, so as to resemble 
a cordate leaf (No. 12) inverted. 

g. Cusp '-i-date, tipped with a sharp and rigid point. 

h. Mu '-cro-ndte, very abruptly tipped with a short point. 
Ex. Wild Senna, Balsam Fir, Willow Oak. Yarrow has the 
marginal divisions linear, toothed, and mucronate. 

IV. Curiosities of Leaves. 

For the pitcher-shaped leaves and their uses, and the 
leaves of the Venus's Fly-trap, see Fourth Reader, pages 
194, 195. For the magnified section of a leaf— the breath- 
ing pores, etc. — see page 193. There are two strata or 
layers of veins in a leaf, the one belonging to the upper, 
and the other to the under surface. The veins of the up- 
per stratum convey the sap from the stem (see Fourth 
Reader, page 181) into the blade of the leaf, for the pur- 
pose of having it there brought in contact with the air, and 
formed into the different materials which are required in 
the growth and nourishment of the tree ; and the veins of 
the lower stratum convey the sap into the bark, through 
which it is carried wherever needed. If the leaves of a 
tree be stripped off, so that this process of suitably prepar- 
ing the nourishment can not be carried on, the tree will 
soon starve to death. On this subject the teacher should 
read the lesson on " Cell Life," Fourth Reader, page 178, 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 185 

V. Frequent Forms of the Stems of Plants. 

[Let pupils bring in as many varieties of these forms as possible.] 

All these forms of the stems of plants exist in nature ; 
but it will perhaps be sufficient for pupils to learn their 
names as they find similar stems, and compare them with 
the figures here given. 

When a stem rises vertically, it is said to be erect. 
When it grows horizontally upon the surface, it is said to 
be procumbent, creeping, trailing, etc. A stem is climbing, 
or scandent, when it rises by clingiug to other objects for 
support — whether by tendrils, as do the pea and grape- 
vine, by their twining leafstalks, like the morning-glory, 
or by rootlets, like the ivy. The stem, like the root, is an- 
nual, when it lasts but one season. 

An annual herb flowers in the first year, and dies, root 
and all, after ripening its seed. Ex. Mustard, Buckwheat, 
etc., and a great variety of flowering plants. 

A biennial herb grows the first season without blossom- 
iug, survives the winter, flowers and ripens its seed the 
second season, and then dies, root and all. Ex. Turnip, 
Carrot, Beet, Cabbage, etc. 

A perennial herb lives and blossoms year after year, but 
dies down to the ground, or near it, annually. 

A stem is said to be herbaceous when it dies down to the 
ground every year. 

All trees, herbs, shrubs, etc., are called plants, in botan- 
ical language. 

A shrub is a small perennial plant, having a woody stem 
which divides into branches at or near the ground. 

A tree is a larger perennial plant than a shrub, with a 
woody stem, or trunk, which does not divide into branches 
near the ground.* 

* On this subject of the "Stems of Plants," see Fourth Reader, page 
186-191 ; Gray's " How Plants Grow," pages 5, 23, 27 ; Gray's Lessons 
in Botany, pages 21, 36, 37; Wood's Botany, page 30-41, etc.; and 
Lindley's Elements, page 20, from which our diagrams are taken. 



186 MANUAL OF INFOKMATION 

VI, Forms of the Roots of Plants. 

Fig. 1. A sprouting seed. ' See Fourth Reader, page 183. 

Fig. 2. A sprouting seed — the corn — farther advanced, 
with a single rootlet. 

Fig. 3. The sprouting corn still farther advanced, having 
a cluster of fibrous or thread-like roots. 

Fig. 4. A seedling of the maple, natural size. At a is 
shown the tip or end of the root magnified. 

Fig. 5. A tic'-ber-ous root. A tuber is defined to be a 
" thickened portion of a rootstockP Botanists, therefore, 
call the tuber of the potato a part of'the subterranean or 
underground stem of the plant. This part of the stem is 
provided with buds called eyes, from which new plants 
arise the succeeding year. 

Fig. 6. A cdn'-ic-al root is one that thickens most at or 
near the crown, and tapers regularly downward to a point, 
as in the common beet, parsnip, and carrot. 

Fig. 7. A turnip-shaped, or nd' -pi-form root, is one that 
is very much thickened above, and abruptly slender below. 

Fig. 8. A spindle-shaped, or fu '-si-form root, is thickest 
at the middle, and tapering at both ends. Ex. Radish. 

Fig. 9. The clustered tuberous roots of the dahlia. 

Fig. 10. The corm, or solid bidb, though commonly con- 
sidered a root, is merely a short and thick rootstock. These 
rootstocks grow more in width than in length, and send out 
buds or bulblets, which in time grow into new bulbs at the 
expense of the old one. The real roots of these bulbs, or 
rootstocks branch out below them. Ex. Crocus, Tulip, Hy- 
acinth, Leek, Onion, Indian Turnip. 

Fig. 11. A runner is a slender and prostrate branch, 
rooting at the end, or at the joints. Ex. Strawberry. 

VII. Forms of Flowers. - 

[Flowers to illustrate all of these forms can usually be obtained in the summer season.] 

Fig. 1. Sal' ' -ver-shdped 1 (sav'-er-shapt), having a slender 
tube which spreads suddenly into a flat border, as in the 
phlox and cypress vine. 

1 The botanical term is hy-po-cra-ter'-i-form. 



FOB, OBJECT LESSONS. 187 

Fig. 2. "Wheel-shaped, or ro'-tate, same as sal'-ver-shaped, 
except that there is no tube, or only a very short one. Ex. 
Potato, Bittersweet. 

Fig. 3. Fun' -net-shaped? shaped like a funnel, or tunnel; 
when the tube opens gradually into a swelling border. . Ex. 
Tobacco, Morning-glory. 

Fig. 4. Bell-shaped? when the tube is wide for its length, 
and the border a little spreading, like a bell. Ex. Canter- 
bury Bell, Harebell. 

Fig. 5. Cross-shaped, 3 consisting of four petals* spread- 
ing at right angles to each other. This is a large class of 
flowers. Ex. Mustard, Radish, Sweet Alyssum, Candy-tuft, 
Water-cress, Rocket, "Wall-flower, Stock, Cabbage, Turnip. 

Fig. 6. Pink-shaped? a co-rol'-la b consisting of petals, 
each having a long claw inserted in a tubular calyx. c 

Fig. 7. Lily-shaped? like the lily, consisting of six parts, 
each gradually bending outward, so as to resemble the 
" bell-shaped." (In the bell-shaped the corolla is entire, or 
mon-o-pet-al-ous — of one petal : in the lily-shaped it con- 
sists of several petals.) Ex. Lily, Tulip, Crown Imperial. 

Fig. 8. Butterfly-shaped? a curiously-shaped co-rol'-la of 
five dissimilar petals, w r hich has been likened to a butter- 
fly ; but the resemblance is not very obvious. At b is an- 
other of the same kind, but a little differently shaped. Ex. 
Pea, Bean, Locust, Vetch, etc. A large class of plants. 

Fig. 9. Lip-shaped? having the co-rol'-la deeply cleft into 
two irregular parts called lips. Ex. Catnip, Sage, Horse- 
mint, Snapdragon, Toad-flax, Monkey-flower, etc. If the 
lips are widely separated they are said to be rin'-gent, or 
" grinning," as in the monkey-flower ; if they are pressed 
together they are said to be per'-son-ate, or " masked," as 
in the snapdragon. 

Fig. 10. Tu'-bu-lar, or trumpet-shaped, when simply form- 

1 ln-fun-dib' -u-U-form. 2 Cam-pan' -u- late. 3 Cru' -ci-form. 

* Car-y-o-jihyl-la! -ceous. 5 Lil-i-a' -ceous. 6 Pa-pil-io-na' -ceous. 

7 Ld'-bi-dte. 

a b c The teacher should by this time explain what is meant by peV- 
als, co-rol'-la, and ca'-lyx. See Fourth Reader, pages 218, 219. 



188 MANUAL OF LNFOKMATION 

ing a tube in the shape of a trumpet, without the swelling 
border which characterizes the funnel-shaped corolla. Ex. 
Trumpet-creeper, Trumpet-honeysuckle, the Bignonias. 

VIII. Forms of Flower Stems. 

[Specimens of as many of the following flower-clusters as can be obtained should be 
provided for the examination of the pupilsr] 

Fig. 1. A ra-ceme' is a flower-cluster with single-flower- 
ed flower-stalks", arranged along the sides of a general 
flower-stem b . Ex. Currant, Lily of the Valley, Choke-cher- 
ry, Barberry, Shepherd's Purse, Hyacinth. A raceme 
whose flowei'-stalks branch into additional flower-stems, is 
called a pan '-i-cle. Ex. Oats, Chess, most of the grasses. 

Fig. 2. The cbr'-ymb is a flower-cluster in which the 
flower-stalks originate at different points along the main 
stem, and elevate all the flowers to about the same height. 
Ex. Wild Thorn, Hawthorn. 

Fig. 3. A spike is a floAver-cluster like a ra-ceme', except 
that the flowers are ses'-sile — that is, have no stems or ped'- 
i-cels. They are seated along the main flower-stem. Ex. 
Mullein, Plantain. 

Fig. 4 is a spike also, in which the ses'-sile flowers are 
more conspicuous ; but the arrangement is the same in 
both. 

Fig. 5. A cat' -kin, or am'-ent, is a spike, each of whose 
flowers is covered with a scaly leaf or bract, as in the Wil- 
low, Poplar, and Birch. 

Fig. 6. An uni'-bel is a flower-cluster whose flower- 
stalks, or ped'-i-cels, of nearly equal length, spring from 
the same, or nearly the same, point, so as to resemble, 
when spreading, the rays of an umbrella, whence the name. 
When the ped'-i-cels branch out at the top, so that each 
becomes the support of a smaller um'-bel, these smaller 
um'-bels are called iim' -bel-lets, and the whole a compound 
um'-bel. Ex. Carrot, Parsnip, Cicuta, Celery, Caraway, 
Onion, Milkweed, Primrose, Fennel, Sweet Cicely, Corian- 

a These single-flowered stalks are called ped'-i-cels. 
b This general flower-stem is called a pe-dun'-cle. 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 189 

der. (Let the pupil examine these, and tell which are sim- 
ple and which are compound umbels.) 

Fig. 7. The um'-bel of the Carrot. 

Fig. 8. The um'-bel (slightly irregular) of the English 
Cowslip. 



CHART No. XX. BOTANICAL : THE CLASSI- 
FICATION OF PLANTS. 

We have already given, in connection with Chart No. 
XIX., representations and descriptions of the forms of 
leaves, stems, roots, and flowers — of the latter, however, 
only as respects the general forms of their petals or flower- 
leaves. It is now desirable for pupils to carry the "ob- 
ject" system of investigation in plants still farther, by a 
more minute examination of the several parts which com- 
pose a complete flower, as a knowledge of these parts is 
required before they can understand either of the leading 
systems which have been adopted in the classification of 
plants. In no other department of science can the " ob- 
ject" or Development system of instruction be carried out 
more satisfactorily than in the study of the Vegetable 
Kingdom ; and this study, as here directed to be pursued; 
will be worth all the time deA r oted to it for the mere culti- 
vation of the perceptive faculties alone. 

We have selected, on the Chart, for an illustration of 
the several parts of a complete flower, a species of the 
Evening Primrose [GEnothera fruticosa) , as it has a flow- 
er complete in all its parts, and is found growing wild, in 
sterile soils, from New England and the Western states to 
the Gulf of Mexico. Several species of the common Prim- 
rose (Oenothera biennis) are cultivated in gardens, as an 
annual, flowering from June to August ; and these also 
may be used for illustration, as they do not differ in im- 
portant particulars from the one we have selected. As 
many of them, however, blossom in the evening and wither 
the next day, they should be gathered for examination ear- 



190 MANUAL OF INFOKMATION 

ly in the morning. Each pupil should have, if possible, a 
flower of the primrose to examine, while also referring to 
the illustration on the Chart. If the primrose can not be 
obtained, take some other flower, even if the petals, sta- 
mens, and pistils are not the same in number as in the 
primrose. 

Calyx. — In the Primrose there is a green calyx, or cup, 
which incloses the yellow flower-leaves. This calyx is 
four-cleft. Where the calyx has several separate leaves, 
each is called a sepal.* On the Chart the calyx is repre- 
sented as divided into four green sep'-als, which .are turn- 
ed down. In the primrose the calyx early falls off, and is 
therefore said to be deciduous. Let pupils examine flow- 
ers, and point out the calyx, and tell whether it is entire, 
or cleft, or composed of several separate sepals. In a few 
flowers there is no calyx, as in the Tulip, Lily, Adder- 
tongue, Tuberose, and Hyacinth. 

Petals. — The primrose has four yellow pet'-als or flower 
leaves. These are seen on the Chart, at the left, most of 
the green calyx having been taken off to show the petals 
the better. Let the pupils take off the petals, one by one, 
from the real flower. Within these petals are seen other 
organs. Let pupils examine other flowers, and see wheth- 
er the corolla (flower) is entire, or consists of several pet- 
als. 

Stamens. — In the stalk represented on the right the ca- 
lyx is turned down, and the petals are removed, so as to 
present a better view of the central organs of the flower. 
Here are eight slender stalks or filaments, each of which 
has at its summit a little knob called an anther. The an- 
ther and filament taken together constitute what is called 
the stamen. A stamen, enlarged, is shown at the extreme 
left of the flower. It will hereafter be seen that the num- 

* Webster prefers the pronunciation sep'-al, Worcester se'-pal. In 
like manner lexicographers differ as to the pronunciation of petal, some 
giving peV-al, and others pe'-tal. We prefer both sep'-al and pSt'-al, 
because the compounds are invariably pronounced with the short sound 
of the vowel— mon-o-sep'-al-ous, pol-y-pgt'-al-ous, etc. 



FOR. OBJECT LESSONS. 191 

ber of stamens varies greatly in different plants. Let pu- 
pils examine flowers of different plants, and count their 
stamens. 

Pistils. — It will be noticed that within the stamens of the 
primrose is a central and stouter stalk, having its summit 
four-cleft. This is called the pistil. The top of it is called 
the stigma, and the slender stalk which supports it is call- 
ed the style. In the case of the primrose this style extends 
down below the calyx, through the stalk of the plant, to the 
vessel or pod which contains the seeds. The seed-vessel 
or ovary, the style, and the stigma all make up the pistil, 
as is shown in the separate figure of the pistil on the Chart. 
The number of pistils differs in different orders of plants. 
Under the head of the several Linnsean classes, on the Chart, 
we have generally presented but one pistil to each class, in 
order to make the distinction plainer between pistils and 
stamens. 

The ovary or seed-vessel is in most plants within the ca- 
lyx, at the bottom of the flower. It is sometimes only one- 
celled, and sometimes many-celled, to correspond with the 
number of styles. 

The top of the stamen, called the anther, is almost always 
yellow, and contains a fine yellow powder, called pollen. 
The little grains of the pollen, when magnified, present dif- 
ferent forms in different plants. A representation of the 
magnified pollen of the primrose is shown on the Chart. 
(For a farther account of the several parts of the flower, 
see Fourth Reader, pages 217-220, 223, 224.) 

I. THE LINNSEAN SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION. 

In the system of classification of plants 'adopted by the cel- 
ebrated Swedish botanist Linnaeus, the classes are found- 
ed upon the circumstances of the number, position, relative 
length, and union of the stamens. These classes are then 
subdivided into orders. The orders of the first 12 classes 
are determined by the number of styles (or stigmas when 
the styles are wanting) ; of the 13th class, by the covering 
or nakedness of the seeds ; of the 14th, by the shape of the 



192 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

pods ; of the 15th, 16th, 18th, 19th, and 20th, by the num- 
ber or union of the stamens; of the 17th, by peculiarities 
in the florets of the compound flowers. The classes only, 
and not the orders, are represented on the Chart. 

Although the Linnsean system has now, in great part, 
given place to the natural method for the classification of 
plants, yet every botanist must understand all the several 
parts and all the. characteristics of plants, which the Lin- 
nsean system so beautifully unfolds; and in no Avay can 
they be better learned than by going through the Linnoean 
system in regular order, where the materials are at hand 
for that purpose. Moreover, for the great ends of "object" 
teaching — the formation of habits of close observation, nice 
discrimination, and searching analysis — the Linnaean sys- 
tem of studying plants is invaluable. It is also the proper 
introduction to those grander beauties and harmonies of 
the vegetable world which are unfolded in the natural 
method of classification. 

Pupils should commence the study of the several parts 
of flowers with the Chart before them, and with the real 
flowers also, and both should be made use of by the teach- 
er for illustration. It is not necessary to take up the Lin- 
nasan classes in order / but the teacher should commence 
with such classes as he can obtain flowers to illustrate. By 
proceeding in this manner he may be able to go over most 
of the classes in one summer. The teacher should not ob- 
ject to introducing his pupils to this study because he him- 
self may know nothing of botany ; for the course pursued 
here is one of observation merely, and not of dictation : it 
is to be expected that he can observe, and remember, and 
learn as well as his pupils ; and where he thus goes along 
with them in their studies, he may perhaps be the better 
enabled to stimulate their zeal and secure their confidence. 
He may perhaps be so ignorant of flowers as to know but 
very few of those whose common names we have given ; 
but as in every neighborhood, and especially in the coun- 
try, some flowers are cultivated, and some Avild flowers are 
so common that every body knows them, the pupils will be 



FOB, OBJECT LESSONS. 193 

likely to bring in a considerable number of such as may be 
easily referred, by their names only, to their respective 
classes. With such the study can be commenced"; and 
once commenced in childhood, it will be apt to be continued 
through life. 

Class I.* One Stamen —To illustrate this class obtain, if possible 
specimens of some of the following plants in blossom: arrow-root jdnl 
ger, water duckweed or starwort, blite, samphire, tick-seed. Some of 
these have one pistil, and belong to the first order in this class ; others 
have two pistils, and, consequently, belong to the second order. Plants 
of his class are not numerous. On the Chart the stamens are colored 
yellow; the pistils have a darker, or orange color. Both pistils and 
stamens of plants in the same class differ much in form, and a variety 
of these forms is given on the Chart. The anthers of stamens differ 
much in shape; and sometimes a pistil has no apparent stigma, and 
sometimes it has a stigma only, and no style. 

Whatever plants the pupils bring in as specimens, let 
them examine and describe, first, the calyx, and tell whether 
it is entire or merely cleft, or whether it consists of many 
sepals; 2d, let them describe the corolla (or flower), and 
tell whether it is entire, or consists of several petals. 

cH^fuch' aT^lf^Ti -1 * Wi " b - C easy t0 obtain specimens of this 
class such as lilac, catalpa, sage, jessamine, fringe-tree rosemarv 

£?of C t£ nm oT d T; hOT f- balm ', Prim ' ^ A » SS menToned 
are ot the hist order— that is, have only one pistil. The fiVure on tho 

cate SEEK Jh ^f l COmi " g UP bGtWeen the sta ™nl TlnsTs t 
STpf&S sfantSS not uS* "** *" ^ ° f ^ T' 

Call the attention of pupils to the fact that all the flowers 
which we have mentioned in the second class are one-pet- 
aled; and also let them see that the petals are inserted 
at the very base of the pistil, and below the ovary. Petals 
thus situated are spoken of as being inferior.] These 

* The first twelve classes are named by prefixing Greek numerals to 
anana, a Greek derivative used metaphorically for stamens. Although 
these names are given on the Chart, it is not necessary, nor desirable 
that young pupils should learn them at present. It is sufficient for them 
now merely to name the classes, by numbers, and tell their character- 
istics leaving the Greek names of the classes and orders to be learned 
at a later period in their studies, if they should then find it desirable 
t By some the Greek word hy-pog'-y-nous (g soft) is used, from hu'po 
under," and £«'w, " pistil"-" under the pistil " • 

I 



194 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

things may appear unimportant in themselves, but they 
will lead pupils to examine carefully, and notice small dif- 
ferences, thus forming the habits of the scientific investi- 
gator. 

Class III. Three Stamens. — This is a much larger class than the 
second, and embraces such plants as the gladiolus, crocus, iris, valerian, 
wheat, rye, oats, barley, millet, Timothy grass, red-top, sugar-cane, broom- 
corn, etc. Here is a great variety for examination and comparison. 
Some, like the wheat, have their flowers in spikes, and have no proper 
corolla.* In many of them, also, as in the illustration on the Chart, the 
pistil is short and knob-like, and has no style. In the wheat the pistil 
becomes the berry. 

Class IV. Four Stamens. — Obtain, for illustration, some of the fol- 
lowing plants : teasel, Venus's pride, partridge-berry, scabious, madder, 
dog-wood, which have their flowers superior — apparently inserted upon 
the ovary, and are of the first order ; witch-hazel, of the second order ; 
holly, and pond-weed, of the fourth order. 

Class V. Five Stamens. — This is a very large class of plants. Among 
those of the first order (that is, those that have but one pistil), having 
one-pStaled flowers, are lungwort, stone-seed, hound-tongue, borage, bu- 
gloss, comfrey, primrose cowslip, nrallein, morning-glory, tobacco, phlox, 
Greek valerian, azalea, potato, red pepper, lobelia, trumpet honeysuckle, 
and four o'clock. Among the Jive-petaled flowers of the first order are 
jewel-weed, violet, spring beauty, bachelor s buttons, grape, currant, and 
gooseberry. In the second order (two pistils) will be found gentian, 
ginseng, carrot, sweet cicely, dill, fennel, caraway, celery, parsley, cori- 
ander, and the elm-tree. In the third order (three pistils) are snow- 
ball, elder, and sumach ; and in the fifth order are spikenard and flax. 
Some of these plants have their corollas inferior, some superior ; and 
some have their flowers in umbels. This class will therefore open to pu- 
pils an extensive field for investigation. Some of the flowers are small, 
and will require very close attention. 

Class VI. Six Stamens. — In the first order of this class are spider- 
wort, pappoose root, barberry, amaryllis, leek, garlic, onion, cives, pick- 
erel-weed, snowdrop, jonquil, daffodil, lily, adder-tongue, bellwort, Sol- 
omon's seal, asparagus, hyacinth, tulip, yucca, crown imperial, and sweet- 
flag ; in the second order is lice ; in the third order are false wake-robin, 
dock, and field-sorrel. 

Class VII. Seven Stamens. — This is a very small class, and we can 
mention only a few common plants that belong to it, such as chick win- 
ter-green, a little plant three or four inches high, and little buck-eye and 
horse-chestnut, trees thirty or forty feet high. All of these belong to the 
first order. 

Class VIII. Eight Stamens. — Among those that belong to the first 

* A corolla is not an essential part of a flower, as a flower, botanically 
speaking, can consist of stamens and pistils alone, and as these are all 
that are necessary for the production of the seed. See Fourth Reader, 
page 218. 






FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 195 

order in this class are scabish or tree primrose, willow-herb, cranberry, 
fuchsia or ear-drop, clarkia, maple-tree, heath, mezereon, and nasturtion. 
In the third order are water pepper, buckwheat, heart's-ease. 

Class IX. Nine Stamens. — A small class. In the first order are sas- 
safras, spice-bush, and camphor-tree. In the second, several species of 
eriogonum. In the third, rhubarb. The rhubarb has no calyx. 

Class X. Ten Stamens. — In the first order are cassia, wild indigo, 
Judas-tree, and rhodora, which have papilionaceous flowers (see page 187, 
Fig. 8) ; prince's pine, Labrador tea, rue, pride of China, mahogany-tree, 
and Venus's fly-trap, which have many-petaled flowers ; and bearberry, 
whortleberry, trailing arbutus, laurel, and rhododendron, which have one- 
petaled flowers. In the second order are hydrangea, saxifrage, soap- 
wort, pink, and sweet William ; in the third order are bladder campion, 
catch-fly, and starwort ; in the fifth order are mouse-ear chickweed,' 
cockle, wood-sorrel, and live forever ; and in the tenth order is the Phy- 
tolacca, or poke-weed. This latter plant, therefore, has ten stamens and 
ten pistils. 

Class XI. Over Ten Stamens inserted on the Calyx.— Here will be 
found a new character for classification — the jiosition of the stamens. By 
pulling off the calyx the stamens will be found adhering to it. Among 
the plants of this class, and in the first order, will be found the numerous 
cactus plants, the cherry, plum, peach, apricot, pomegranate, and myrtle. 
In the fifth order— that is, ha\ing Jive pistils— will be found the common 
thorn-bush, mountain ash, the pear, apple, and quince, and those beauti- 
ful flowering shrubs the spira?as. In this class are also found the rose, 
in its numerous varieties, the strawberry, blackberry, raspberry, and the 
potentillas or five-fingers. Some botanists include these in the thirteenth 
order of this class, as all of them have a great many pistils. Where these 
pistils are, are afterward found the little seed berries that make up the 
large berry or fruit. The rose, in its natural or wild state, has only five 
petals, but these are greatly multiplied by cultivation, the numerous 
stamens of the wild flower being changed by culture into petals. See 
Fourth Reader, page 223. 

Class XII. Many Stamens, inserted on the Receptacle ; that is, on the 
summit of the flower-stalk which supports the pistil or pistils. See Chart. 
— In the first order of this class are found the bass-wood, portulacca or 
purslane, celandine, blood-root, water lily, pond lily, cohosh, poppy, tea, 
orange, lemon, the common mandrake, and the curious side-saddle* flow- 
er. In the second order is the larkspur ; in the third are the mignon- 
ette and peony ; in the fifth are monk's-hood, wild columbine, and St. 
John's wort ; and in the thirteenth order— having a great many pistils — 
are the clematis or virgin's bower, American cowslip, hellebore, mag- 
nolia-tree, tulip-tree or white-wood, ranunculus or crowfoot, etc. 

Class XIII. Four Stamens ; Two long, and Two short. — In some 
plants of this class two of the stamens are abortive — mostly or wholly 
wanting. The plants of this class are also peculiar in having labiate or 
lip-shaped flowers. See page 187, Fig. 9. In this class are two orders : 
gymnosperms, or naked-seeded plants ; and angiosperms, or those which 
have covered seeds. In the first order will be found spearmint, pepper- 
mint, pennyroyal, blue gentian, hyssop, catmint, horehound, ground ivy, 
motherwort, lavender, savory, marjoram, skullcap, thyme, balm, and ver- 
vain. In the second order are yellow coxcomb, eye-bright, beech-drops, 



196 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

figwort, bignonia or trumpet-flower, blue-hearts, snapdragon, monkey- 
flower, toad-flax, gerardia or false foxglove, and digitalis or garden fox- 
glove. 

Class XIV. Six Stamens; Four long, and Two short. — All the plants 
in this class are pod-bearing, and have cruciform or "cross-shaped" flow- 
ers. The class has two orders : 1st Order, siliculosa, length and breadth 
of pod nearly equal ; 2d Order, siliquosa, pod much longer than broad. 
In the first order are sea-rocket, shepherd's purse, pepper-grass, horse- 
radish, water radish, honesty or satin-flower, woad, and candy-tuft. In 
the second order are tooth-root, wall-cress, tower mustard, water rad- 
ish, wall-flower, stock-judy-flower, rocket, radish, mustard, cabbage, and 
turnip. 

Class XV. Filaments of the Stamens united in one Set, surrounding 
the Pistil, and often appearing attached to it. — The orders in this class 
depend upon the number of stamens. In the third order are blue-eyed 
grass, tamarind, and tiger-flower ; in the fifth are passion-flower and 
stork's-bill ; in the seventh, pelargonium or stork geranium ; in the 
tenth, crowfoot geranium or crane's-bill ; in the thirteenth (having many 
stamens united), common mallows, marsh-mallows or hibiscus, holly- 
hock, and common cotton. 

Class XVI. Filaments of the Stamens united in two Sets. — The or- 
ders depend upon the number of stamens. In the fifth order is corydalis 
or colic-weed; in the sixth are dielytra, fumitory, snake-root, and flow- 
ering winter-green ; in the tenth are the common pea, sweet pea, vetch, 
wistaria, locust-tree, bladder senna, indigo, liquorice, clover, and bush 
clover. The lupine, dyer's broom, furze, and peanut are usually placed 
in the sixteenth class, but their numerous stamens are united in one 
set. 

Class XVII. Anthers united; Flowers compound. — The filaments of 
the stamens are usually five, and separate. As these are usually small 
flowers clustered together in heads, it requires close examination to ob- 
serve the several parts of any one little flower. There are two kinds of 
flowers or florets in a single head of these compound flowers — the outer 
being called ray florets, and the inner disk florets. Of these compound 
flowers there are the five following orders : 

1st Order. Fqualis (or "equal"), having perfect florets; that is, each 
floret, whether in the ray or the disk, having both pistils and stamens. 
In this order are succory or endive, dandelion, lettuce, vegetable oyster, 
burdock, thistle, artichoke, and boneset. 

2d Order. Superftua ("superfluous"), having the disk florets perfect 
(both stamens and pistils), while the ray florets contain only pistils. In 
this order are tansy, artemisia, wormwood, life everlasting, elecampane, 
aster, golden-rod, ox-eyed daisy or chrysanthemum, garden daisy, mari- 
gold, May-weed, chamomile, and yarrow. 

3d Order. Frustranea (" frustrated" or useless), having the disk florets 
perfect, while the ray florets have neither stamens nor pistils. In this 
order are sunflower, bur marigold, coreopsis, bluebottle, rudbeckia, and 
the numerous centaury plants. 

4th Order. Necessaria, the disk florets having stamens only, and the 
ray florets having pistils only. In this order are ragged-cup, leaf-cup, 
pot marigold, and ragwort. 

5th Order. Segregata ("separated"), each floret, whether in disk or 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 197 

ray, having its separate calyx. In this order are elephant-foot and globe- 
thistle. 

Class XVIII. Stamens on the Style of the Pistil. — The orders de- 
pend on the number of stamens. In the first order are the orchis, scrof- 
ula-weed or rattlesnake-leaf, snake-mouth, tway-blade, coral-root, and 
the arethusa — the latter a low beautiful plant of a purple color, found in 
wet meadows and swamps. In the second order is the cypripedium or 
lady's slipper. In the fifth order are the common milkweed, dwarf 
milkweed, butterfly weed, dogbane, and milkvine. In the sixth order 
is birthwort; in the tenth is wild ginger or white snake-root. 

Class XIX. Stamens and Pistils in separate Flowers on the same 
Plant. — The orders depend on the number of stamens. Some of these 
plants have no calyx, some have no corolla, and some have neither ca- 
lyx nor corolla. In the first order are found wild caper and spurge, sea 
eel-grass, and river nymph ; in the third order are the common cat-tail 
or reed-mace, bur reed, sedge, sweet fern, and Job's tear ; in the fourth 
are pipewort, alder, nettle, mulberry, and box ; in the fifth, false spurge, 
the amaranths and coxcombs, and the common hogweed or pigweed. 
The latter has no corolla. In the thirteenth order (many stamens) are 
arrow-head, Indian turnip, water arum, burnet, and the following trees : 
oak, hazel, beech, birch, chestnut, hornbeam, button-wood, hickory, but- 
ternut, and black walnut. Belonging to this same class, and having 
their stamens united in one, two, or three sets, are the cucumber, musk- 
melon, water-melon, gourd, squash, pumpkin, the castor-oil plant, and 
the pine, cedar, and arbor-vitse trees. 

Class XX. Stamens and Pistils in sepai-ate Flowers and on different 
Plants. — The orders depend on the number of stamens. In the second 
order are the numerous species of willow, ash, and horn-bush ; in the 
third is the fig-tree ; in the fourth, the baj'-berry and mistletoe ; in the 
fifth, the prickly ash, common hop, hemp, and spinach; in the sixth, 
sarsaparilla, common green-brier, yam-root, and honey locust ; in the 
eighth, poplar, balm of Gilead, and date plum ; in the fifteenth, in which 
the stamens are united in one set, red cedar and yew. 

Class XXI. The plants of this class, which have no visible flowers, 
are divided into six natural families or orders, as given under the Nat- 
ural Method of Classification. They are, 1st, Ferns ; 2d, Liverworts ; 
3d, Mosses ; 4th, Lichens ; 5th, Fungi ; 6th, Algas, or Sea-weeds. 

' Compositions. — Let pupils write descriptions, from time 
to time, of the plants which they have obtained and exam- 
ined : let them describe their floral organs ; color of the 
flower; time of blossoming; whether fragrant or not; 
height of plant ; where found — whether in the ope fields 
or woods, on dry and high lands or in wet places ; whether 
cultivated or wild ; if any use is made of it ; whether climb- 
ing or trailing, or a shrub, or a tree, etc. ; and let them con- 
nect with their notices of the places where they found them 
descriptions of scenery, incidents, etc. 



198 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

Pupils should very early begin the collection of herbari- 
ums — dried specimens of plants. For directions, see page 
201. 

II. THE NATURAL METHOD OP CLASSIFICATION. 

These Lessons are designed more particularly for those 
pupils who have read, or are reading, the Botanical Part 
of the Fifth Reader. They will also be found useful to the 
teacher, as guides and suggestions, with the aid of the 
Chart, in giving a series of Oral Lessons on Plants, even 
to the younger pupils who have not read so far, or to the 
whole school. 

[Chart No. XX. before the pupils : on the teacher's desk pieces of oak, walnut, or 
some other coarse-grained wood, sawed across, to show the circles of yearly growth, to 
illustrate the Exogenous plants ; pieces of corn-stalk, ratan, 1 stems of lily, and grass- 
es, for the Endogenous ; and, for the Cryptogamous, ferns, pieces of toad-stool, and 
puff-balls, moss from the woods, and lichens from old wooden rails and rocks, all of 
which may be obtained at any season of the year. The pupils also should obtain and 
bring in specimens.] 

1. Let some pupil go to the Chart and show how plants 
are arranged in three great divisions, in the Natural Meth- 
od of Classification. Let another similarly arrange the 
specimens on the table. Describe Ex-og'-en-ous 2 plants, 
En-dog'-en-ous 3 (see Fourth Reader, pages 176 and 187, 
and Fifth Reader, pages 144 and 1S6), Cryp-tog'-a-mous 
(Fifth Reader, pages 144 and 196). 

FIKST DIVISION. EX-OG'-EN-OUS PLANTS. 

[Have specimens on the table.] 

2. The general character of Exogenous plants being now 
well understood, let some one point out on the Chart the 
two classes of these. Let another divide the specimens on 
the table into these two classes, another name them, an- 
other describe the An'-gi-o-sperms, 4 and another the Gym'- 
no-sperms. 5 (See Fifth Reader, page 144, verse 2.) 

1 The ratan, from which walking-sticks are made, and other species 
of reeds, growing in great variety in India, belong to the Palm family. 

2 From the Greek exo, on the outside, and genao, to produce. 

3 JFrom the Greek endon, within, and genao, to produce. 

4 From the Greek aggeion, a vessel, and sperma, a seed. 
6 From the Greek gumnos, naked, and sperma, a seed. 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 199 

CLASS I. ANGIOSPKRMS (COVERED SEEDS). 

^Specimens of Polypetalous, Monopetalous, and Apetalous plants on the table.] 
(For specimens of the An'-gi-o-sperms take the various pods, and any other cover- 
ed seeds, and for the Gym '-no-sperms take cones of the pine, hemlock, larch, etc. In 
the larch and pine, each of the scales of the cone, when ripe, may he seen to have, on 
its inner face, next the base, two or more ovules, or seeds. The scales of the cone are 
the re&lpiatila of the plant.] 

3. Let one pupil go to the Chart and point out and ex- 
plain the first division of Exogenous plants (the Polypeta- 
lous? Fourth Reader, page 219, and Fifth Header, page 
150, Def.). Let another point out and explain the sec- 
ond division (the Monopetalous? Fourth Reader, page 219, 
and Fifth Reader, page 167, Def.). Let another point out 
and explain the third division (the Apetalous? Fifth Read- 
er, page 178, Def.). Let another arrange, and similarly 
explain, the specimens on the table. Let the teacher con- 
tinue the exercise by handing various specimens to the 
pupils, and requiring them to describe them. Thus, one 
says, " This is a polypetaloihs plant, because each flower has 
many petals." " This is monopetalous, because each flow- 
er has but one petal." " This is apetalous, because its flow- 
er has stamens and pistils only, and no petals." Then give 
them a sunflower, thistle, aster, or marigold, etc. (of the 
composite family), and see if they can tell whether the 
flowers are polypetalous or monopetalous. They will be 
apt to call them polypetalous. Show them (or, better still, 
let them find out) that each flower-head is composed of a 
great many flowers, or florets, and that each one of these is 
monopetalous (Fifth Reader, page 164), Having thus ex- 
amined some one plant in this family, let them select oth- 
ers, and see if they can find the separate florets. While 
doing this they will probably observe that most of the 
flower-heads contain two kinds of florets, or they may have 
learned the same in connection with the Linnaean classes : 
tell them the central are called disk florets, and the outer 

1 Polypetalous, from the Greek, polus, many, and petalon, a petal. 

2 Monopetalous, from the Greek, memos, one, and petalon, a pgtal. 

3 Apetalous, from the Greek, a, which gives a negative, meaning, and 
petalon, a pStal. 



200 MANUAL OF INFOEMATION" 

ones ray florets. Let them tell to which order each plant 
belongs, in accordance with the Linnaean system. (See 
page 154.) This is a good exercise to cultivate close ob- 
servation. Let a pupil point out on the Chart, and name 
the seven families of Polypetalous plants there represented. 
The six families of Monopetalous plants there represented. 
The four of the Apetalous.* 

4. As it would be attended with too great expense to 
color, in the Fifth Reader, the numerous species of plants 
represented there, and as the colors add much to a correct 
understanding o*f them, the same species are represented 
colored on the Chart, to which the pupil can refer, so that 
he may thereby have all the advantages of the coloring. 
And although the figures may be thought to be too small 
to be seen by the class at a distance, yet if they have pre- 
viously read over the descriptions in the Fifth Reader, or 
studied the names, color, and height from the Chart, the 
colored figures, though small, will answer very well, espe- 
cially when specimens also are used. 

5. For example : suppose the lesson of the day is about 
the Composite family. Have some specimens of that fam- 
ily on hand, if possible ; but whether you have or not, send 
a pupil to the Chart, and let him point out and name No. 
1, the Tall Thistle. The next pupil in the class tells its 
height ; the next, the color of the flower ; the next, why it 
is monopetalous ; another, why it is exogenous ; another, 
why it belongs to the class angiosperms ; another, to what 
Linnsean class it belongs, and why. Let another pupil then 
go and point out some other species (taking up the real 
flower also, if you have it), and go through in this, or a 
similar manner, with as many plants as you have time for. 
Then call upon the class for any facts which they can re- 
member about the plants of this family ; poetry, etc. 

The following abbreviated lessons are given as merely a 
general guide to the teacher after these suggestions. They 
will answer, also, as a synopsis for oral lessons to the 

* These are by no means all the families that belong to these divi- 
sions, but the most prominent ones. 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 201 

younger pupils who have not yet advanced to the Fifth 
Reader. 

6. We would here suggest the importance of teaching 
pupils to preserve plants, and collect Herbariums of their 
own. A quantity of old newspapers, two boards, each 
about one foot wide and 18 inches in length, and a heavy 
stone for a weight, are all the apparatus needed. Upon 
several thicknesses of paper lay down several plants, with 
the leaves and flowers neatly spread out ; then additional 
paper and plants, in successive layers, upon these; place 
the whole between the boards, with the stone upon the up- 
per board to press them. They will require fresh paper 
daily for a week; after that, as they become drier, they 
will not require changing so often. The plants should be 
labeled, with their names (if they can be obtained), and the 
time when they were gathered ; and after they are thor- 
oughly dried they should be attached to sheets of white 
paper. These preserved specimens will be found useful in 
conducting the following exercises when fresh specimens 
can not be obtained. 

It would be an easy matter for every teacher to collect, 
during a single season, an Herbarium of several hundred 
species. For the method of ascertaining their names, 
where they are not already known, we must refer to such 
works as Wood's, Lincoln's, Eaton's, or Gray's Botany, etc. 
Each person should collect several specimens of each plant, 
that he may enlarge his collection by exchanging with 
others. 

V. PolypetalollS Plants. — Point out and name the spe- 
cies of the Rose family represented on the Chart, tell their 
ordinary height, and color of their flowers.* Do you know 
any other species in this family ?f To what class in the 

* The Fifth Reader gives, -additionally, the scientific name of each 
plant, the time of flowering, and native country. These facts should be 
required, except in a few instances, from advanced pupils only, who have 
paid special attention to the study of Botany. 

t Such as Michigan or prairie rose, eglantine or sweet-brier, yellow 
rose, dog rose, white rose, tea rose, etc. ; also strawberry, blackberry, 
raspberry, potentilla or cinquefoil, etc. 

12 



202 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

Linnsean system do all of these plants belong ? Eleventh 
class. Let the pupils examine and tell if they can, and 
why. Over ten stamens on the calyx. Mention some facts 
about the Rose family. (Fifth Reader, pages 147-150.) 
Some poetry. (See Fifth Reader ; or the selections may 
be made from any other book.) Who wrote that poetry ? 

8. Point out and name the species of Common Fruits 
of the Rose family represented on the Chart — tell their 
height, color of flowers, etc. To what class in the Lin- 
nsean system do they belong ? Eleventh. Why ? What 
other species of fruits of this Rose family can you men- 
tion ?* Facts about the " Common Fruits." (Fifth Reader, 
page 151-153.) Poetry. Who wrote it, etc. 

9. What very important plant in the Camellia family ? 
Tea-plant. Facts about it. Important plant in the Mal- 
low family ? Cotton-plant. " Facts about it. Point out 
and name the fruits of the Citron family represented on 
the Chart — their height, color of flowers, etc. To what 
Linnsean class do the Camellias belong ? Fifteenth. Why ? 
The Mallow plants ? Fifteenth class. The Citron plants ? 
Twelfth. Why ? Because the flowers have over ten sta- 
mens on the receptacle ; that is, they come out directly from 
the top of the flower-stem. See Chart. Poetry about either 
of these families. 

10. Point out the Cactus family on the Chart. To what 
division does it belong? Exogenous. Why? To what 
class in the Exogenous division? Class of Angiosperms. 
Why ? To what division of the Angiosperms ? The Poly- 
petalous division. Why ?f 

Point out and name the species of Cactus plants repre- 

* Wild black cherry, choke cherry, and numerous varieties of the En- 
glish cherry ; many kinds of plums, peaches, apples, pears, etc. Let pu- 
pils name as many kinds of apples as they can — which are winter apples, 
etc. — which they like best — describing their qualities. For the manner 
in which new kinds are produced, and favorite kinds preserved by bud- 
ding and grafting, see Fourth Eeader, page 213. Give statistics of the 
apple crop in the county, state, etc. See Census Reports. 

f Similar questions should occasionally be asked about the several 
families, until the divisions and classes are well understood. 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 203 

sented on the Chart — tell their height or length, and color 
of flowers. To what class, in the Linnsean system, do they 
belong ? Eleventh. Why ? (See Chart.) Same class as 
the Rose family. Mention some facts about the Cactus 
family. (Fifth Reader, page 158-160.) Poetry, names of 
authors, etc. 

11. What are Leguminous plants? (Fifth Reader, page 
163, Def.) Point out and name the plants of this family 
represented on the Chart, and tell their ordinary height, and 
color of their flowers. What other plants of the Legumin- 
ous family can you mention ? (See Fifth Reader, page 161. 
Specimens should be exhibited.) To what Linnsean class 
do the Lupine, Corol-tree, and Locust-tree belong? Six- 
teenth class. Why? Because the stamens are united in 
two sets. See Chart. To what Linnsean class does the 
Sensitive-plant belong? Fifteenth. Why? What facts 
can you mention about any of these Leguminous plants ? 
(Fifth Reader, pages 162,163.) Poetry. Who wrote it ? etc. 

12. What are Umbelliferous plants? (Fifth Reader, 
page 163, Def.) Point out and name the plants of this 
family represented on the Chart, and tell their ordinary 
height, and color of their flowers. To what Linnsean class 
do they belong ? Fifth. What other plants of this fam- 
ily can you mention?* To what family does the Ivy be- 
long? Facts about the Umbelliferous plants. Poetry. 
Who wrote it. 

13. MonopetaloilS Plants. — What are the Monopetalous 
plants? (Fifth Reader, page 167, Def.) Name the fami- 
lies of this division represented on the Chart. 

Point out and name the species of the Composite fam- 
ily represented on the Chart, and tell their ordinary height, 
and color of their flowers. To what Linnsean class do they 
belong? Seventeenth. Why? What other species of 
this family can you mention ?f Facts about these plants. 
(Fifth Reader, page 164-167.) Poetry. 

* Parsley, caraway, fennel, sweet cicely, coriander, cicuta, anise, gold- 
en Alexanders, etc. 

f A large number : golden-rod, vegetable oyster, burdock, eupatorium, 



204 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

14. Point out and name the species of the Jessamine 
family represented on the Chart, and tell their ordinary- 
height, and color of their flowers. Linnsean class ? Sec- 
ond. Facts about this family. (Fifth Reader, page 168.) 
Poetry. 

15. Point out and name the species of the Honeysuckle 
plants, height or length, color of their flowers. Linnaean 
class? Fifth. Facts. Poetry. (Fifth Reader, pages 168, 
169.) Describe the upper leaves of the Trumpet Honey- 
suckle. ( Cownate-perfoliate!) 

16. Point out and name the species of the Heath plants, 
height, color of flowers. To what Linnsean class do the 
Heaths proper belong? Eighth. Facts. Poetry. (Fifth 
Reader, page 169-171.) 

17. Point out and name the species of the Labiate plants 
represented on the Chart, their height, color of flowers. 
To what two Linnsean classes do • these plants belong ? 
Second and thirteenth. Why are these called Labiate 
plants? (Fifth Reader, page 172.) Other species of La- 
biate plants* Some facts about the Labiate plants. (Fifth 
Reader, page 172.) Poetry. 

18. Point out and name the species of the Trtjmpet- 
elower plants represented on the Chart, length or height, 
color of flowers. Linnasan class. Thirteenth. Facts about 
this family. As the most conspicuous of the Trumpet- 
flower plants are the Bignonias, all the plants of this fami- 
ly are sometimes called JBignoniads. 

ApetaloilS Plants. — Wh at are Apetalous plants ? (Fifth 
Reader, page 178, Def., and verse 1, Les. XVI., same page.) 
Name the families of this division represented on the 
Chart. 

19. Point out and name the species of the Oak family 
boneset, asters, daisies, zinnias, elecampane, ox-eye, chamomile, May- 
weed, yarrow, feverfew, coriopsis, bur marigolds, groundsel, wormwood, 
tansy, life everlasting, fireweed, pigweed, bachelor's button, saffron, gar- 
den artichoke, succory, endive, hawkweed, dandelion, etc. 

* Spearmint, peppermint, blue gentian, common sage, rosemary, 
sweet marjoram, summer savory, hyssop, pennyroyal, skullcap, catnip, 
ground ivy (Gill-over-the-ground), motherwort, etc. 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 205 

represented on the Chart, and tell their ordinary height.* 
Linntean class. Nineteenth. Facts about the trees of this 
family. (Fifth Reader, page 175-178.) Poetry. 

20. What tree of the Elm family is represented on the 
Chart, and to what height does it grow ? To what Lin- 
ncean class does it belong? Fifth. What other trees of 
the Elm family can you mention ?f Facts about the Elms. 
(Fifth Reader, pages 179, 180.) Poetry. 

21. Point out the trees of the Tallow family represent- 
ed on the Chart, and tell their ordinary height. To what 
Linnrean class do the Willows and Poplars belong ? Twen- 
tieth. What other trees and shrubs of the Willow family 
can you mention?! Facts about the Willow family. 
(Fifth Reader, pages 180, 181.) Poetry. 

22. Point out the two species of the Birch family rep- 
resented on the Chart, and tell their ordinary height. To 
what Linna^an class do they belong ? Nineteenth. What 
other species of the Birch family can you mention ?§ Facts 
about the Birch family. (Fifth Reader, pages 181, 182.) 
Poetry. What is the shape of the leaf of the Canadian 
Poplar ? Cordate or sub-cordate. Of the Weeping Wil- 
low ? Lanceolate ; also acuminate or pointed, and serrate* 
or notched like the teeth of a saw. Shape of the leaves 
of the English Elm? Ovate, with serrated edges. Draw 
specimens on the blackboard.! 

* The name mast is given to the fruit of the forest trees generally — 
such as nuts, acorns, etc. 

t White elm or American elm, slippery or red elm, river elm, and 
the Southern or Wahoo elm. For a full account of the elms, see Brown's 
Trees of America, page 479-513. 

% They are numerous — such as basket willow, white willow, shrub 
willow, creeping willow, rose willow, bog willow, black willow, gray wil- 
low, shining willow, yellow willow, heart-leaf willow, etc. ; and of the 
poplars, the common Lombardy poplar, white poplar or American aspen, 
birch-leaf poplar, cotton-wood, etc. 

§ Yellow birch, 60 to 80 feet high ; red birch, 30 to 50 feet ; canoe 
birch or paper birch, 60 to 70 feet high — referred to in Longfellow's Hia- 
watha ; and several species of dwarf birch — mere shrubs. See Wood's 
Botany, page 648. 

|| Be careful, in a serrated leaf to make the notches -point forward to- 
ward the apex of the leaf, as the teeth of a saw point forward. 



206 MANUAL OF INFOKMATION 

CLASS II. GYMNOSPERMS (NAKED SEEDS). 

What name is given to the second class of the Exogenous 
plants? Why? (Fifth Reader, page 185, Def.) What 
large family composes this class ? The Cone-bearing family. 

Point out and name the species of the C one-be aring 
family represented on the Chart, and tell their ordinary 
height. To what Linnsean class do most of them belong ? 
Nineteenth. Why? IPo what Linnsean class do the Red 
Cedar and common Yew belong? Twentieth. Why? 
Some facts about the trees of this family.* (Fifth Reader, 
page 182-184.) Poetry. 

SECOND DIVISION. ENDOGENOUS PLANTS. 

[Specimens of numerous varieties should be exhibited.]- 

What are Endogenous plants? How do they grow? 
etc. (Fourth Reader, pages 176, 187, and Fifth Reader, 
144, 186.) Describe the two classes into which they are 
divided. (See Chart, and Fifth Reader, pages 190, 195, 
Def.) What families are included among the aglumaceous 
plants? (Chart.) Among the glwmaceous? (Chart. Spec- 
imens should be placed on the table, and the pupils should 
classify them.) 

CLASS I. AGLUMACEOUS. 

Point out and name the species of the Iris family repre- 
sented on the Chart. Tell their height, and color of their 
flowers. To what Linnsean class do most of them belong ? 
Third. To what class does the Tiger-flower belong ? Fif- 
teenth. Why ? Facts about the plants of the Iris family. 
(Fifth Reader, pages 1 86, 187.) Poetry. Repeat it or de- 
scribe it, and tell who wrote it. 

Species of Lilt family represented on the Chart ; height ; 
color ; Linnsean class (Sixth). Other plants that belong to 
the Lily family.f Facts (Fifth Reader, p. 1 8 7-8) . Poetry. 

* The cone or fruit of the pines is called a slrob'-ile. 
t Besides numerous species of the lily and tulip, the tuberose, garlic, 
onion, hyacinths, asphodel, Solomon's seal, asparagus, etc. 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 207 

Species of the Palm family represented on the Chart ; 
ordinary height. To what several Linnaean classes do they 
belong ? Sixth, Nineteenth, and Twentieth. Facts con- 
cerning the Palms. (Fifth Reader, page 188-190.) 

CLASS II. GLUMACEOUS. 

[Specimens may be obtained at any season.] 

What are included in the Glumaceous class ? Sedges, 
Grasses, and Cereals. "What are cereals? The cereals 
are the edible grains — such as Wheat, Rye, Barley, Oats, 
Maize, Rice, and Millet. 

Point out and name the four species of Sedge plants 
represented on the Chart, and tell their ordinary height.* 
What species of sedge are common in this country ?f 
Facts about these plants. (Fifth Reader, pages 190, 191.) 

Grasses represented on the Chart ; their height. Facts 
about the Sedges and Grasses. (Fifth Reader, p. 190, 191.) 
Poetry. To what Linnsean class do they belong ? Third. J 

Point out and name the Cereals represented on the 
Chart, and tell to what height they grow, etc. (Specimens 
should be exhibited, and the pupils should name them.) 
To what Linnoean class do the Cereals belong? Third. 
Facts about the Cereals. (Fifth Reader, page 192-194.) 
Poetry.§ 

* Specimens may be obtained at almost any season of the year. They 
may be readily distinguished from grasses by having the sheath at the 
base of the leaves closed vp — not slit. See Fifth Reader, page 90. 

t Yellow sedge, slender sedge, showy sedge, red-root sedge, horsetail 
rush, robin's clubrush (in water some of the stems are as fine as hairs), 
mountain rush, lake bulrush, sea bulrush, cotton grass, bogrush, white 
bog rush, whip grass, etc. More than two hundred species are common 
in this country. 

X The teacher should inquire of pupils what grasses they are familiar 
with, etc. ; and he should obtain statistics about the hay crop in the sev- 
eral states, and in his own county and town. 

§ The teacher should be able to add numerous facts of his own gath- 
ering, such as the kinds of wheat, and of other grains cultivated in the 
country around— which are liked the best, and why ; what summer fal- 
lowing is ; times and modes of sowing and harvesting ; implements 
used ; quantity of grain per acre ; prices per bushel ; standard weight 



208 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

THIRD DIVISION. CRYPTOGAMOUS PLANTS. 

[Specimens of Ferns, Mosses, Lichens, and Fungi should he exhibited.] 

What is the third great division of plants ? Cryp-tog'- 
a-mous. See Chart, and Fifth Reader, page 196. What 
is meant by cryptogamous ? Concealed fructification ; hav- 
ing those parts, such as the pistils, stamens, etc., which 
produce the fruit, either concealed, or different from other 
plants. Into what two classes are the Cryptogamous 
plants divided ? (Chart.) What are the leading peculi- 
arities of each ? (Fifth Reader, page 196.) 

CLASS I. ACEOGENS (ac'-EO-GENS). 1 

(Specimens of Ferns and Mosses on the table. It may 
be difficult for pupils to distinguish liverworts from mosses, 
but see Fifth Reader, page 198.) Point out and mention 
some of the Ferns, and tell their height ; their general col- 
or. Some of the Liverworts. Some of the Mosses. Some 
facts concerning ferns. (Fifth Reader, page 196-198.) Con- 
cerning mosses. (Fifth Reader, page 199-201.) Poetry 
concerning ferns. Concerning mosses. 

CLASS II. THALLOGENS (THAL'-LO-GENS). 2 

What are Thallogens ? (Fifth Reader, page 196.) The 
three leading divisions of Thallogens ? (Chart.) 

Lichens. — (Specimens of Lichens and fungous plants can 
be obtained at any time, and in all parts of the country. 
Beautiful collections of lichens in great variety may be ob- 
tained from old wooden rails, rocks, etc., and by the aid 
of a little glue may be neatly arranged on thin pieces of 

of a bushel ; amount of flour per bushel ; miller's toll; weight of barrel 
of flour ; the process of bread-makmg ; flour of different grains — what 
used for ; statistics of amount of wheat and other grains produced in the 
county, state, and United States ; amount and value of exports of each, 
etc., etc. See Census Reports, Agricultural Reports, and other means 
of information. 

- From the Greek — ah-os, at the end, or top, and gennao, to produce, 
to grow. Hence, plants which grow from the end ; summit growers. 

' From the Greek — thallos, a young branch, and gennao, to produce. 



FOE OBJECT LESSONS. 209 

board. We have seen them used for covering picture 
frames. Algse, or Sea-weeds, may he obtained any where 
on the sea-coast.) Point out and name some of the Li- 
chens represented on the Chart, and tell their height, etc. 
Facts concerning them. (Fifth Reader, page 202-205.) 
Poetry. If the teacher knows the names of any of the 
plants brought in, he should tell their names, and let the 
pupils label and preserve specimens. So of all other speci- 
mens of plants. 

Fungous Plants. — What are Fungi, or fungous plants ? 
(Fifth Reader, page 206.) Point out and name some of 
the species represented on the Chart, and tell their height, 
etc. Some facts concerning the Fungi. (Fifth Reader, 
pages 206-208.) Poetry. 

Algae, or Sea-weeds. — What are Algae, or Sea-weeds? 
(Fifth Reader, page 209.) Point out, name, and tell the 
length of some of those represented on the Chart. Facts 
concerning the Algre. Poetry, etc. 

Compositions. — Not only each class in the three great 
divisions of plants, but each family also, will furnish abund- 
ant materials for a separate composition, even though the 
pupils may have taken only a general view of plants repre- 
sented in each. After what has already been said as to the 
many particulars which may be mentioned in connection 
with plants, it would seem that no farther directions need 
be sriven. 



CHART No. XXI. ECONOMICAL USES OF 
PLANTS. 

The descriptions which are here given, of certain import- 
ant portions of the Vegetable Kingdom, under the head of 
" Economical Uses of Plants," are designed to carry for- 
ward still farther the " object" system of instruction, in a 
practical continuation of the subject of Botany. It is de- 
signed that these descriptions shall aid the teacher in his 
familiar and instructive " object lesson" talks with the pu- 



210 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

pils, upon the subjects of the several fruits mentioned. 
With this view, in connection with the questions, explana- 
tions, suggestions, and direct information imparted, the 
Linnsean class and order, and the leading divisions of the 
Natural Method also, are given, that the teacher may, if he 
think it desirable, have his pupils constantly reviewing the 
ground which they have already gone over, and repeating 
and verifying their observations upon the characteristic 
features of plants. Thus, in the case of the apple, which is 
put down as being in the eleventh class and fifth order of 
the Linnsean system, the teacher should require the pupil 
not only to tell the class and order, and xvhy it is so, but 
also, if the flower be at hand, to show why it is so. So, 
likewise, as to its place in the natural system, the pupil 
should show why it is an exogen; why it is an angio- 
sperm ; and why it belongs to the natural order of Rose- 
worts. These suggestions may answer for all the plants 
described. Other important plants or fruits not described 
here, the teacher may take up, and treat in a similar manner. 

I. Our Common Fruits. 

What fruits are represented in the First Division of this 
Chart ? Name them. 

1. The Common Apple (Py'rus ma'lus, Lin. S., xi., 5 ; 
Nat. M., Ang. Exog., ord. Roseworts*) is the most popular 
of all the fruits of the temperate zones. No other "fruits 
can be brought to so high a degree of perfection with so 
little trouble ; and of no other are there so many excellent 

* The parenthetical description reads that the scientific name of the 
common apple is Py'rus ma'lus ; that in the Linncean System it is of the 
eleventh class and fifth order; and that in the Natural Method of classifi- 
cation it is an Angiospermous exogens, of the order of Roseworts. This 
parenthetical description is for the teacher's special benefit. The bota- 
nist Lindley has separated the apple, pear, quince, medlar, etc., from the 
Roseworts proper, and called them Appleworts ; and he has also taken 
the almond, peach, nectarine, plum, cherry, etc., and classed them as an 
order of Almondworts. The term wort, which originally meant a plant 
or herb, is now used only in compounds. Roseworts are, therefore, merely 
plants of the Rose order. 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 211 

varieties in general cultivation, adapted to almost every 
soil, situation, and climate. 

Describe the Apples represented on the Chart. Name 
as many parts of the apple as you can. The skin, the stem, 
the eye, the flesh, the core, the seeds. What do we mean 
by the flavor of an apple? Name and describe as many 
kinds of apples as you can.* Mention the various pur- 
poses for which apples are used. Ordinary prices per bush- 
el, and barrel. Times of ripening and gathering. How 
winter apples should be gathered. Natural and grafted 
fruit, and how to obtain new kinds. (See Fourth Reader, 
page 213, and Fifth Reader, page 151.) 

To which kind of flower clusters does the flower of the ap- 
ple belong ? The cor'-ymb — sometimes almost a complete 

* In doing this, give size, form, and color; then describe the flesh and 
the flavor. The following descriptive terms, which we find in a work 
describing numerous varieties of the Apple, may be of some aid to the 
teacher. Many of them will also apply to other fruits. 

Form. — Round, roundish, conical, obtuse-conical, flattened, oblong, 
oblong-ovate, unequal-sided, angular. Skin warty, scabbed, tender, 
tough, thin, thick, wax-like, etc. 

Color. — Red, dull red, lively red stripes, blotched with red, striped 
with red on the sunny side, crimson, blush cheek, blush, pink, russet, 
russet inclining to brown, golden russet, yellow, deep yellow, pale yellow, 
straw color, greenish-yellow, orange, green, yellowish-white, yellowish- 
green, greenish-white, etc. 

Flesh. — White, yellowish, veined with red, pinkish near the surface, 
tender, crisp, firm, tough, juicy, dry, mellow, mealy, fine-grained, coarse- 
grained, melting, etc. 

Flavor. — Acid, mild, mild acid, sprightly, sub-acid, sharp acid, tart, 
sour, rich, sweet, sugary, aromatic, spicy, rose flavor, rich vinous, etc. 

Among the varieties in cultivation may be mentioned : 

1. Summer Apples. — Early harvest, sweet bough, red Astrachan, sum- 
mer rose, early strawberry, summer pippin, William's favorite. 

2. Fall Apples. — Pearmain, Porter, Gravenstein, fameuse, mother, 
Jersey sweeting, maiden's blush, Hawley, fall pippin, Dyer, Vandervere, 
pound sweet. 

3. Winter Apples. — Nonsuch, minister, Rhode Island greening, Bald- 
win, red Canada, Swaar, Northern spy, ladies' sweeting, Boston russet, 
Newtown pippin, Jonathan, rambo, seek-no-farther, Danvers sweet, Ort- 
ley, Hurlbut, Chandler, golden russet, Carle, wine apple, lady apple, Pry- 
or's red, Wood's greening, Janet, winter blush, winter queen, nickejack. 



212 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

uni'-bel. Can you describe the form of the leaf of the ap- 
ple ? It is o'-vate, a-cute', or short a-cu'-ruin'-ate, ser'-rate, 
and pet'-i-o-late. Give the reasons for each. Are both 
sides of the leaf alike ? Examine. What is the color of 
the flowei-s ? Usually a delicate pink. Of the fruit? Red, 
yellow, green, and russet, with all imaginable shades and 
interminglings of these colors. 

2. The Common Peak (Py'rus commit' nis, Lin. S., xi., 5 ; 
Nat. M., Ang. Exog., ord. Poseworts) is a fruit next in pop- 
ularity and value to the apple. Among the numerous cul- 
tivated varieties may be mentioned the Bartlett, duchess, 
Madeline, Bloodgood, Dearborn, vergaloo, seckel, Julienne, 
Tyson, vanilla, Canandaigua, Stevens's Genesee, Dnnmore, 
Flemish beauty, Maria Louisa, Dix, Onondaga, Beurre, win- 
ter bell and many others. Let pupils name and describe as 
many as they can. 

How does the pear generally differ in shape from the 
apple ? Name as many parts of the pear as you can. For 
what are pears used ? Ordinary prices per bushel, or bar- 
rel. Describe the form of the leaf of the pear. Itiso'-vate- 
lan'-ce-o-late, partially ser'-rate, and a-cute'. Are both sides 
of the leaf alike ? It is smooth above, and downy beneath. 
Color of the flower? White. Of the fruit? Similar to the 
apple. 

3. The Common Quince (Py'nts cydo'nia, or Cydo'nia 
vulga'ris, Lin. S., xi., 5 ; Nat. M., Ang. Exog., ord. Pose- 
worts) is a rough-flavored astringent fruit, unfit for eating 
in the raw state, but admirable for stewing and making 
preserves. The two principal varieties are the apple-quince, 
and the pear-quince. 

On what does the Quince grow ? How does the quince 
generally differ in shape from the pear ? Wider at the base 
than the pear ; but, like the pear, its form is oJovate. Can 
you describe the skin of the quince ? It is yellow when 
ripe; and is clothed with a coat of short, entangled, and 
matted hairs, very different from the smooth skin of the 
apple. This kind of covering is called to-men-tose' . For 
what are quinces most used? For jellies and preserves. 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 213 

"What is the color of the flower of the quince % "White, 
with a tinge of purple. What is the shape of the leaves? 
Ovate, acute, and entire. Observe that the margin is not 
toothed or serrate as in the apple and pear. Are both 
sides of the leaf alike ? The leaf is smooth above, and 
downy beneath. 

4. The Peach {Amy g' dolus per'sica or Per'sica vulga- 
ris, Lin. S., xi., 1 ; Nat. M., Ang. Exog., ord. Boseicorts) is 
the most exquisitely delicious of our common fruits — more 
gratifying to the palate by its mass of juicy pulp than the 
grape, and more delicate than the melon. 

On what does the Peach grow ? On a tree, or shrub, 
from eight to fifteen feet high. How does the peach differ 
in shape from the fruits before described ? It is more 
nearly round or orbicular. What is its size? From one 
to two inches in diameter. The two classes into which 
this fruit is divided ? Freestones and Clingstones. Color 
and flavor of the fruit ? The white peaches, the yellow, 
and the red-fleshed. The finer white-fleshed varieties are 
of a sugary flavor, the choice yellow-fleshed are of a vinous 
or wine flavor, and the red-fleshed are generally quite tart 
or acid. Describe the construction of the fruit, and tell 
wherein it differs from the apple. Like the apple, it is cov- 
ered by a skin ; but the skin itself, unlike that of the apple, 
has a downy covering ; the flesh is more pulpy than that 
of the apple ; instead of a core, the peach has a stone-like 
chamber, which contains the seed. The stone containing 
the seed is often called the pit. Purposes for which the 
peach is used. Describe the leaf. It is lan'-ce-o-late and 
serrate, from three to five inches long, one third as wide, 
smooth on both sides, and has short pet'-i-6les. Color and 
odor of the flowers. Rose-color, with the odor of Prussic 
acid. Which appear firsts the flowers' or the leaves^ ? 
(For account of the nectarine, see Fifth Reader, page 152.) 
Let pupils tell the kinds of peach with which they are ac- 
quainted, time of ripening, etc. 

5. The Common Plum {Pru'nus domes' tica, Lin. S., xii., 
1 ; Nat. M., Ang. Exog., ord. Moseworts) is a pleasant and 



214 MANUAL OF INFOKMATIOJST 

useful fruit, growing on a cultivated tree or shrub about 
fifteen feet in height. Among the numerous cultivated va- 
rieties may be mentioned the damson, Ottoman, peach- 
plum, Duane's purple, green gage, Bleecker's gage, Colum- 
bian gage, Orleans, scarlet, imperial gage, purple gage, long 
blue, golden-drop, late red, Ickworth, Jefferson, etc. About 
150 varieties are published in the catalogues of American 
gardeners. 

Describe the Plum. It is ovate in form ; fleshy, like the 
fruits before described ; smooth ; varying in size and color ; 
the pit is smooth, while that of the peach is deeply chan- 
neled. What -uses are made of the plum? What are 
prunes ? A species of dried plums, imported chiefly from 
Southern France, where this fruit is very abundant. Name 
and describe as many kinds of plums as you are acquainted 
with. Are their flowers all of the same color ? Yes : 
white. 

6. The Apricot (Armenia' ca vulga'ris or Pru'mts Ar- 
menia 'ca, Lin. S., xi., 1 ; Nat. M., Aug. Exog., ord. Mose- 
ivorts) is an early and pleasant fruit, blossoming immediate- 
ly upon the opening of spring, but liable to be injured by 
early frosts. 

What can you tell about the Apricot ? The apricot is 
intermediate in size and character between the peach and 
the plum, having a skin, flesh, and pit, combining the chai-- 
acters of both. The tree is tender in this climate. It is 
usually budded on plum stocksj and trained against a wall 
with a southern exposure. It grows wild in Central and 
Southern Asia, and the mountains of the Caucasus are said 
to be covered with it. There are fifteen or twenty varie- 
ties cultivated. The fruit of the common apricot is a pur- 
plish yellow ; the black apricot is of a dark purple color 
when ripe. Flowers white ; leaves ovate, acuminate, some 
of them sub-cordate, smooth, and on long pet'-i-oles. 

1. The Grape ( Vi'tis, Lin. S., v., 1 ; Nat. M., Ang.Exog., 
ord. Vineworts) is said to be among fruits what wheat is 
among the cereal grasses, or the potato among farinaceous 
roots ; and, like them, in every country where it will grow, 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 215 

it is cultivated with pre-eminent care. Grapes are berries, 
which grow on woody vines in clusters, and on that kind 
of a ra-ceme' called apcm'-i-cle (see page 188). The flow- 
ers are green ; berry globular in form, purple, green, or red, 
and usually five-seeded ; seed sub-cordate. Let the pupil 
name as many kinds of grapes as he can. Isabella, Cataw- 
ba, red and white Muscat, black Hamburg, fox or frost 
grape, etc. What are plantations of vines called ? (See, 
also, a lesson on grapes, Second Reader, page 29.) 

For. what are grapes used ? Used chiefly as a dessert- 
fruit ; also for drying, when they form the raisins and cur- 
rants of commerce ; and for making wine. The raisins are 
produced from various species of vines, and derive their 
name partly from the place where they grow, as Smyrnas, 
Valencias, etc., and partly from the species of gi-ape of 
which they are made, as muscatels, blooms, sultanas, etc. 
The muscatels, from Malaga, are in the highest estimation. 
A small species of grape, largely cultivated in Greece and 
the Grecian islands, produces the dried currants of com- 
merce, which are largely used in cakes and puddings. 

What is wine ? Wine proper is the fermented juice of 
the grape only, although we speak of currant-wine and oth- 
er kinds of wine. The varieties of grape produced by cul- 
tivation are very numerous ; and the kinds of wine depend 
not only on the kind of grape, but also upon the soil and 
climate. The well-known Isabella and Catawba grapes 
are natives of America. They have a purple color, and 
have as luscious a taste as the best grapes of Europe. 

The principal kinds of wine are Port (from Oporto, Por- 
tugal, whence its name), which is of a dark purple or inky 
color ; Sherry, from the vicinity of Cadiz, Spain — of a deep 
amber color ; Claret, the red wines of the Gironde, in 
France ; Champagne, so called from the province of Cham- 
pagne, in France ; Burgundy, mostly red wines, from the 
old province of Burgundy ; Madeira, so called from the 
island of that name ; Malmsey, a Madeira wine, made from 
grapes grown on rocky grounds exposed to the full influ- 
ence of the sun's rays; Teneriffe, so called from the island 



216 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

of that name ; and Tokay, so called from a town of that 
name in Hungary — said to be the finest of all the wines. 
There are also German wines, the Sicilian white wines, 
American wines, etc. Most of the American wine is of the 
kind called white wine. 

Brandy is mixed with nearly all foreign imported wines, 
and especially with the Port wine shipped from Oporto ; 
and, indeed, so extensive and so varied are the adultera- 
tions that pure unmixed wine of any sort is exceedingly 
rare. The best wines are also extensively imitated, and 
sometimes without containing any of the juice of the grape. 
It is said that more of the so-called " Tokay'''' wine is sold 
annually in New York city alone than is produced from all 
the vines of Tokay. The acid of grapes is chiefly the tar- 
taric. The sugar contained in grapes differs slightly from 
common sugar in composition, containing a smaller quan- 
tity of carbon. 

8. Currant. — The common Red Currant [Hi'bes ru'- 
bncm, Lin. S., v., 1 ; 1ST at. M., Ang. Exog., ord. Currant- 
worts), is a one-celled berry, filled with pulp, in which are 
contained numerous seeds. The currant-stem is a good 
example of the ra-ceme'. The leaves are from three to five- 
lobed, smooth above, slightly downy beneath, mucronately 
serrate,* and sub-cordate at the base. 

9. The Filbert ( Cor'ylus avella'na, Lin. S., xix., 12 ; Nat. 
M., Ang. Exog., ord. Mastioorts) is the well-known fruit of 
the cultivated European hazel-nut. It belongs to that or- 
der of plants called mastworts, which includes the oak, the 
beech, and the Spanish chestnut. It grows on a shrub 

* Leaves of the red currant should be laid before the pupil, who should 
be led to notice all these little particulars in their forms, and then, if 
possible, find terms descriptive of them — either .terms of his own, or such 
as we have above given. He has already learned what a serrate leaf is, 
and that when the leaf is tipped with a little point it is said to be mu- 
cro-nate. But here the serratures themselves are slightly mucronate. It 
may be thought that this is a small particular ; but the child who can 
be led to notice it of his own accord, and to find a term descriptive of 
this peculiarity, will have already entered upon that course of close ob- 
servation which characterizes the scientific discoverer. 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 217 

from two to ten feet in height. Observe the resemblance 
between this nut and the acorns and beech-nuts. The 
three well-known varieties of the filbert are the red, the 
frizzled, and the white. The latter is the kind most com- 
monly cultivated. The husk which incloses the nut of the 
filbert is the ca'-lyx of the flower. It will be seen, from 
the engraving, that it is cam-pan' -n-late, or bell-form, 
spreading at the apex, and torn-toothed. 

The American hazel-nuts, like the wild hazel-nuts of Brit- 
ain, grow on small shrubs from two to five feet high, found 
in thickets and borders of fields. They are excellent, but 
are inferior to the cultivated European nut. They might, 
perhaps, become equal to it by long-continued cultivation. 

(Let children bring in specimens of acorns, beech-nuts, 
and common hazel-nuts, to describe, and compare with the 
filbert. The latter, also, which may be had at almost any 
country store, should be obtained.) 

10. The English or Garden Gooseberry (Hi'-bes gros- 
sula'ria, Lin. S., v., 1 ; Nat. M., Ang. Exog., ord. Currant- 
worts) is a well-known, cultivated, globe-like (globose) fruit, 
of a lively but pleasant acid taste, and belonging to the same 
family as the currant. The branches are prickly ; some 
kinds have smooth berries, others hairy; leaves roundish, 
from three to five-lobed, hairy beneath, and on hairy pet'- 
i-6les. Observe that the little green ca'-lyx which incloses 
the flower of the currant and gooseberry is bell-form and 
five-cleft, and that the cor'-ol and sta'-mens are inserted on 
the ca'-lyx. These are not too small particulars for chil- 
dren to notice. There are now several hundred varieties 
of the gooseberry produced by cultivation, with red, white, 
green, and amber fruit. Gooseberries are sometimes raised 
of monstrous size for exhibition, by leaving on the bush 
only a few berries, and supporting them so that they do not 
hang by their stems, but rest and fatten. In our climate 
the gooseberry is very subject to mould or mildew. Ask 
the children if they know what mould is. Describe it. 
(See Fourth Reader, page 172, verse 3 ; and Fifth Reader, 
page 206, Fig. 11, and verses 1 and 2.) 

K 



218 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

11. The Garden Raspberry {Bu'bus idce'us, Lin. S., xi., 
13 ; Nat. M., Ang. Exog., ord. JRoseworts) is a well-known 
native berry, growing wild in all parts of the country, but 
greatly improved by cultivation. It is of a somewhat acid 
taste, but, like the strawberry, it is one of the few fruits 
that does not undergo the acetous fermentation in the 
stomach. There are numerous varieties. (Pupils should 
name aud describe as many as they can.) Besides the 
common black and red varieties that are found growing 
wild, there are the red and yellow Antwerps, Franconia, 
Fastolff, etc. 

The berry is convposed of numerous pulpy one-seeded 
grains (called ac'-i-nes or ac'-i-ni by botanists), situated on 
a dry receptacle. Pupils should be led to examine these 
pulpy grains, and to take them off carefully to see how 
they are arranged on the receptacle. Let them notice, 
also, that the little green cup (ca'-lyx) inclosing the flower 
is five-cleft, and. that the flower is five-pet'-aled. 

12. The High Blackberry (Mu'bus villo'sus, Lin. S., xi., 
13 ; Nat. M., Ang. Exog., ord. Hoseworts), Avhich is a thorny 
shrub, growing wild, from 4 to 6 feet high, in all parts of 
the country, is beginning to be cultivated as a garden fruit. 
Of the cultivated varieties, the "New Rochelle" and " Law- 
ton" have thus far been the most popular. Let pupils bring 
in portions of stem, leaves, "and fruit, and describe them. 
It will be found that the blackberry has an angular stem ; 
leaflets from 3 to 5, ovate, acuminate, serrate, hairy on both 
sides. The pet'-i-oles are prickly; petals white. Calyx 
and flower similar to those of the raspberry. The fruit, 
which ripens in August and September, is collected into 
an ovate or oblong head. Let pupils examine and tell 
wherein it differs from the raspberry. 

13. The English Strawberry (Fraga'ria ves'ca, Lin. S., 
xi., 13 ; Nat. M., Ang. Exog., ord. Roseicorts) excels all other 
fruit-bearing herbaceous plants in the excellence of its fruit. 
It grows wild in great abundance in many parts of the coun- 
try ; but the cultivated varieties are much the largest and 
best flavored. The fruit is sometimes an ounce or more 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 219 

in weight. The strawberry has five petals, but the stamens 
and pistils are very irregular. It frequently happens that 
the strawberry is deficient either in stamens or pistils ; and 
when this is the case, if those of one kind only are planted 
together, they will not bear fruit. The runners which take 
root, and send up independent plants, are called stolons by 
botanists. The leaves are in threes, downy ; flowers white ; 
berry similar to the blackberry in shape. 

Let the pupils name the varieties with which they are 
acquainted, and describe them as to color, size, shape, 
weight, etc., as well as they can. Among the prominent 
varieties the large early scarlet, Longworth's prolific, Wil- 
son's Albany, Genesee, Walker's seedling, Jenny Lind, and 
some others, have perfect flowers, and bear fruit when 
planted alone. Hovey's seedling, crimson cone, Burr's 
new pine, M'Avoy's superior, Monroe scarlet, Moyamen- 
sing pine, Jenny's seedling, and some others have imper- 
fect flowers, and are comparatively unfruitful unless plant- 
ed with varieties that have either perfect or staminatc 
flowers. 

Other common fruits and vegetables, not represented on 
the Chart, but which may be mentioned in this connection, 
and described by the pupils, are cherries, cranberries, pump- 
kins, squashes, cucumbers, water-melons, muskmelons, egg- 
plants, tomatoes, peas, beans, salsify or vegetable oyster, 
mushrooms, etc. Some of the pupils will doubtless be able 
to describe several kinds of many of these. 

Among nuts, the hickory-nut or walnut, black walnut, 
butternut, chestnut, etc. Among garden edibles not men- 
tioned are artichoke, asparagus, kale, cabbage, cauliflower, 
leek, celery, cives or chives, garlic, pepper-grass, lettuce, 
cress, spinach, parsley, mustard, horse-radish, mint, thyme, 
sage, marjoram, balm, nasturtion, etc. 

The pupils may easily make collections of the seeds of 
these, of those represented on the Chart as " Our Common 
Fruits," and already described, and also of many other 
plants of value, including the " Common Root Plants ;" 
and in this manner, and by a system of exchanges with 



220 MANUAL OF INFOKMATION 

each other, they may form private cabinets of seeds, and 
also a handsome and valuable cabinet for the school-room. 

Pupils should learn to distinguish these -seeds, and to 
name them at sight; and they should know the proper 
times and modes of sowing them, their proper cultivation, 
the dangers to which they are liable from insects, worms, 
blight, drouth, etc. ; and they should describe the various 
uses of the plants themselves. What a field for investiga- 
tion, and for early education upon the Development or " Ob- 
ject" system, is here opened! Early cultivation of the 
perceptive faculties, which gives the best of mental disci- 
pline, and the acquisition of useful knowledge, may here 
be harmoniously combined. 

Cabinets of Seeds for the school-room, which are de- 
signed to aid in carrying out the principles of instruction 
herein developed, are now in course of preparation.* They 
are designed to embrace not only the seeds of most of the 
plants represented on Charts XXI. and XXII., but also a 
considerable variety of others that are of value in cultiva- 
tion — such as different kinds of corn and grain plants, 
grasses, and fruits from temperate and tropical climates. 
It is supposed that one such collection in one school of a 
town or neighborhood, will not only greatly aid in carry- 
ing out the admirable system of instruction by lessons on 
objects, but that it will be the means of awakening a great 
degree of interest in the subjects of agriculture, horticul- 
ture, gardening, etc. Pupils will be able to greatly enlarge 
such a collection from their own resources, and neighboring 
schools will be incited to get up collections of their own. 

II. Common Root Plants. 

The Radish (Ha'p7iamcs satl'vus, Lin., xiv., 2 ; Nat. M.,~ 
Ang. Exog., ord. Crucifers), which belongs to the large or- 
der of plants having cruciform or cross-shaped flowers, is a 
well known salad root, originally from China. There are 
two principal varieties of this root — the one spindle-shaped, 

* July, 1862. At the office of the " American Educational Bureau," 
New York City. 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 221 

and the other turnip-shaped or globular, as represented on 
the Chart. There are also sub-varieties arranged as spring, 
summer, autumn, and winter radishes. All are of easy 
culture and rapid growth. The most common radishes 
have roots of a purple color ; there are also white, scarlet, 
rose-colored, and black radishes. (Let pupils tell the kinds 
with which they are acquainted ; color and size of seed ; 
time of sowing ; soil best adapted to them ; how long after 
sowing before the roots are fit for eating ; how they are 
eaten, etc.) The stem of the radish grows from two to 
four feet high ; is very branching, bearing white flowers, 
or tinged with purple, succeeded by long, thick, fleshy, 
two to three-sided, acuminate pods, which contain the seed. 
(Pupils should examine the construction of these pods 
when ripe, and notice how they open, etc., and how they 
differ, in this respect, from many other pods. Let them 
notice the shape of the lower leaves, which are pinnately 
cleft. See Chart No. XIX. They are also called lyrate 
leaves, or lyre-shaped, because they have the end lobe 
largest and rounded.) 

The Sweet Potato {Convolvulus bata'ta, or JBata'ta 
ed'idis, Lin. S., v., 1 ; Nat. M., Ang. Exog., ord. Bindweeds), 
which is extensively cultivated for its root in tropical cli- 
mates, and in the United States as far north as New Jer- 
sey, is an herbaceous, perennial plant, which sends out 
round, pale-green, trailing stalks, extending six or eight 
feet every way. In a genial climate these put forth at 
their joints roots which grow to be very large tubers, so 
that from a single plant forty or fifty large potatoes may 
be produced. The leaves are angular, cordate at the base, 
and on long pet'-i-oles. Flowers showy, rose-purple, and 
campanulate or bell-shaped, similar to those of the morn- 
ing-glory ; potato brownish yellow. 

The Common Potato (Sola'num tubero'sum, Lin. S., v., 
1 ; Nat. M., Ang. Exog., ord. Nightshades*) is a biennial 

* This order of Nightshades includes not only the wholesome potato 
and tomato, but also some virulent poisons used in medicine, such as the 
deadly nightshade or belladonna, henbane, stramonium or thorn-apple, 



222 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

herbaceous plant, a native of South America, where it still 
grows wild in the elevated regions of the tropics. It is 
believed to have been first introduced into England in the 
year 1586. The sweet potato was known in England be- 
fore that period. What is eaten as the "potato" is not 
the root of the plant, but the tubers of its subterranean 
stem. The flowers are white, or of a purple tinge ; corolla 
five-cleft, and somewhat bell-shaped ; the stem or stalk is 
what is called wing-angled. The fruit, containing the 
seeds, is the well-known "potato balV that grows on the 
stalks. New varieties are often obtained by planting the 
seeds. "When the potato itself is planted, it sprouts from 
what are called the eyes, each of which contains the germ 
of a future plant. 

The potato is a very economical article of food ; and it 
has been estimated that an acre planted with potatoes will 
produce more than double the quantity of nutriment than 
when sown to wheat. Two hundred bushels of potatoes 
to the acre, at sixty pounds weight to the bushel, is only a 
moderate average. Some of the varieties cultivated are 
the Mercers, Mashanocks, pink-eyes, Carters, kidneys, blue- 
noses, Western reds, early Junes, etc. (Let pupils tell the 
kinds they are acquainted with, time of planting, of gath- 
ering, prices per bushel, etc.) 

The Common Onion (Al'lium ce'pa, Lin. S., v., 1 ; Nat. 
M., Agl. Endog.,* ord. Lilyworts) is strongly-scented, bulb- 
ous, biennial plant, universally cultivated in gardens. It is 
usually raised from the seed, which, sown early in the sea- 

and tobacco. An extract from the leaves of the common potato is a pow- 
erful narcotic. It is only the tubers of the potato that are wholesome when 
cooked. The genus capsicum, whose ground seeds are known as Cay- 
enne pepper., also belongs to this order. Quantities of the common po- 
tato, in a state of putrefaction in a dark place, have been known to give 
out a most vivid light, sufficient to read by. 

* The plants previously described on this Chart belonged to the great 
division Exogens ; but this is an Endogens, or an Endogenous plant. 
See Fourth Reader, page 176, and Fifth Reader, pages 144 and 186. It 
also belongs to the Aglumaceous class of the Endogens — for which see 
Def. page 190, Fifth Reader. 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 223 

son, produces the bulb fit for eating in the summer and 
fall. If the bulb be planted in the succeeding spring, it 
sends up a straight, smooth, stout, hollow stalk, from three 
to four feet high, bearing at top a large round umbel of 
greenish-white flowers. The large, old, and refuse onions 
are called scallions. The leaves, which are radical — that 
is, growing from the root — are fistular, like the stem : that 
is, hollow, or tubulous. Of the common Black-seed Onions, 
the red, white, and yellow are the principal varieties. 

There are, also, the red, white, and yellow Top Onions, 
which produce small onions, as the common kinds yield 
their seed, in a ball at the top of the stalk. Still another 
kind, the Potato or Hill Onion, produces a number of 
bulbs in a hill just below the surface of the ground. There 
is also the Welsh Onion, which resembles a large scall- 
ion, and is used only while green. 

It is said that those onions which have a tinge of red or 
purple are more pungent than those which are white ; and 
that those which have the rind, or outer membranous cov- 
ering of the bulb, thin and transparent, are always of mild- 
er flavor than those which have it thick. 

The Common Turnip {Bras' sica ra'pa, Lin. S., xiv., 2 ; 
Nat. M., Ang. Exog., ord. Crucifers), which has long been 
cultivated in gardens and in fields, both for the table and 
for cattle, is a biennial plant, most of the kinds having a 
depressed (somewhat flattened) globose root, contacted 
below into a slender radicle. In the second season after 
sowing a flowering stem shoots up, from two to four feet 
high, bearing yellow flowers, and having the four petals ar- 
ranged in the form of a cross, and therefore called cruci- 
form. The radical or root leaves are rough, deep green, 
and lyrate in form, like those of the radish ; the cauline or 
stem leaves are cut or jagged, and the upper leaves are 
entife. 

There are numerous varieties of the common turnip, va- 
rying in color and shape, among which are the early red- 
top or purple-top, early Dutch, early stone, long or tankard, 
yellow Aberdeen, yellow globe, etc. (Let pupils name and 



224 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

describe the kinds with "which they are acquainted.) The 
hardy Swedish turnip, or rutabaga, which sometimes grows 
to an enormous size, and is cultivated chiefly as food for 
cattle, has a yellowish root. 

The turnip furnishes a surprising example of rapid 
growth. A seed of the common turnip has been estimated 
to weigh the fourteen thousandth part of an ounce ; and, 
assuming its growth to be always uniform, it has been cal- 
culated that a turnip-seed may increase fifteen times its 
own weight in a minute. By actual experiment made on 
very rich soil, turnips have been found to increase by 
growth 16,000 times the weight of their seeds each day 
they stand upon it. The average of a turnip crop, whether 
ruta baga or the common turnip, is estimated at ten tons 
to the acre. 

The Common Parsnip [Pastina'ca sati'va, Lin. S., v., 2 ; 
Nat. M., Ang. Exog., ord. Umbelliferous Plants) is a bien- 
nial, with a sweet-flavored, fusiform or spindle-shaped root, 
usually larger than the carrot. In the second season it 
sends up a smooth, erect, fun-owed, and branching stem, 
about three feet high, producing small yellow flowers on a 
large umbel. The leaves are pinnate, downy beneath, and 
smooth above. There are several varieties, such as the 
Guernsey, round, yellow Siam, and long white — the latter 
sometimes running three or four feet into the ground in a 
sandy soil. 

The parsnip grows wild abundantly in fields, by fences, 
etc., where its root is small, hard, bitter, and poisonous. 
When the parsnip grows upon well-tilled poor land it is 
more sweet and agreeable than when raised in richer soils. 
As it is but little injured by being frozen, it may remain in 
the ground through the winter. The average yield is ten 
tons per acre. (Let the pupil describe the kind of parsnip 
with which he is acquainted — its color, size of root, shape, 
manner in which it is cooked, etc.) 

The Carrot (Dau'cus caro'ta, Lin. S., v., 2 ; Nat. M., Ang. 
Exog., ord. Umbelliferous Plants) is also a biennial, having 
a fusiform or spindle-shaj>ed root. In the second season it 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 225 

sends tip a branching stem from two to three feet high, 
bearing small white flowers, nearly all summer, in a termi- 
nal umbel. The leaves are pale green, very numerous, pin- 
nate, having the divisions or leaflets narrow, linear, and 
acute. The seeds are oblong, hispid or bristly, and con- 
tained in a roundish pod having bristly ribs. It is said 
that the seeds do not retain their vegetative powers more 
than a year. Of the cultivated carrot there are many va- 
rieties — such as the early horn, long orange, Altringham, 
long purple or blood, long white, etc. The early horn and 
long orange are the only kinds desirable for garden cul- 
ture. Average produce per acre, ten tons. Let the puj^il 
tell for what purposes the carrot is used — boiled, fried, in 
soups, etc., and as food for cattle. Eight hundred bush- 
els of carrots per acre have been obtained. For sowing 
the seed, which is very light, it is best to mix them thor- 
oughly with fine sand, in the proportion of four or five 
pounds to the bushel of sand ; let the whole lie in heaps, 
and occasionally water for two weeks before sowing. A 
light, but rich, and deep, and mellow soil, mixed with sand, 
is the best for all long-root plants; for if the ground is 
hard, the roots will grow forked, and shoot out lateral 
branches. 

The Common Beet (JBe'ta vulga'ris, Lin. S., v., 2 ; Nat, 
M., Ang. Exog., ord. Chenojiods* or Goosefoots) is a bien, 
nial cultivated root, having the form of the carrot, but 
thicker in proportion to its length. The root is most com- 
monly of a red color, very juicy, and when wounded bleeds 
freely. The leaves are large, long, acute, and smooth, green 
or purplish, and having a long pet'-i-ole ; flowers greenish- 
white, sessile or seated, heaped together, and arranged on 
slender spikes. The beet root is much used as a pickle, 
and the tender leaves are boiled and eaten as greens. The 
root is sometimes preserved as a confiture or sweetmeat ; 
and some dry and grind the root, and make it a substitute 
for coffee. The juice also makes a good varnish. 

* From the Greek clten, a goose, and potts, a foot, from the similarity 
of the leaves to the webbed feet of a water-fowl. 

K 2 



226 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

By long culture this valuable root has run into many va- 
rieties, among which are the early blood turnip-beet, with 
a short and thick root like that of the turnip ; the long 
blood-beet, the best for winter use ; the white sugar-beet, or 
early white scarcity / the mangel-wurtzel or red scarcity, 
which is a red-skinned beet, but white inside, growing 
much out of the ground ; and the yellovj sugar-beet. " If 
the long beets are raised for a series of years in ground 
not deeply plowed and well pulverized, and the seed sown 
from them is annually resown, they will become shortened 
in growth, or form a habit of growing much above ground, 
and thereby deteriorate in quality for the table." 

The white sugar-beet is largely cultivated in France, 
Belgium, Germany, and Russia for the sugar obtained from 
it. The best beets yield from six to eight per cent, of pure 
sugar. France annually produces about 60,000 tons of 
beet sugar, about half the quantity that is used in the king- 
dom. The average yield of beets is estimated at from ten 
to fifteen tons per acre. In Germany, 100 tons of the 
mangel-wurtzel have been raised on an acre. 

III. The Cereals, or Corn Plants. 

The grain-bearing or corn plants are called cereals, from 
Ceres, whom the ancients regarded as the goddess of corn 
and harvests. (See Fifth Reader, page 194.) That one 
among the cereals upon which any people depends chiefly 
for its food is called by that people corn — as toheat in En- 
gland, oats in the northern Lowlands of Scotland, rye in 
the sandy districts on the southern shores of the Baltic Sea, 
and maize or Indian corn in some parts of the United 
States. 

Common Wheat (Trit'icum vulga're, Lin. S., iii., 2 ; Nat. 
M., Glu. Endog., ord. Grasses) is both an annual and a bi- 
ennial, having the culm (the name given to the straw of 
grasses) terete or round, and smooth, from three to five feet 
high, bearing at the top the head of wheat, which belongs 
to the kind of flower-stem called a spike. (See Chart No. 
XIX.) The spike is somewhat four-sided, and is crowded 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 227 

with spikelets (little spikes), which are usually about four 
or five flowered, aud which contain the grains or kernels 
of wheat, although not often more than two perfect ker- 
nels are contained in a spikelet. Notice the glumes, husks, 
or chaff, which inclose the grains. The pupil will see, by 
examining a head of wheat, that at the base of each spike- 
let are two of these husks or chaff-leaves. These are call- 
ed, in botany, glumes. The inclosing husks or chaff of each 
separate kernel are called pal' eon (singular, pal'ea). Let 
the pupils examine heads of wheat until they can readily 
distinguish the glumes from the pal'ese. This can be done 
at any season of the year. It will be a good object lesson. 
Pupils may then extend their observation to any of the 
grasses which they can obtain. They will find that all of 
them have glumes. Hence all the grasses, among which 
the cereals are included, are said to be glumaceous. The 
cereals and grasses have stamens and pistils, but no corolla. 
The straw or culm of the wheat bears leaves, which are 
long and lance-linear, veined, and roughish above. There 
are several varieties of wheat. 

1. Summer wheat {Trit'icum cesti'vum), which is sown 
early in spring, and harvested the same season, is less hardy 
than winter wheat ; the whole plant has a weaker appear- 
ance ; the ear is more slender ; and its glumes or husks are 
usually provided with much longer beards or awns. 

2. Winter wheat {Trit'icum hyber'num), the kind repre- 
sented on the Chart, is sown in autumn ; it lives through 
the winter, and ripens its seed in the following summer. 
There are several varieties of this — such as the red chaff, 
the white chaff, awned, beardless, etc. Probably more than 
fifty kinds, many of them, however, differing but little from 
each other, are known in the United States.* 

* The chief varieties of wheat cultivated in the Northern and East- 
ern states are the white flint-wheat, tea-wheat, Siberian, bald, Black Sea, 
and the Italian spring wheat ; in the Middle and Western states, the 
Mediterranean wheat, Virginia white May, the blue stem, the Indiana, 
the Kentucky white-bearded, the old red chaff, and the Talavera. The 
yield is from ten to forty bushels and upward per acre. In the year 



228 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

(Let the pupils name and describe as many kinds as they 
are acquainted with — telling the time of sowing; how 
much wheat is sown to the acre ; mode of preparing the 
ground ; what summer fallowing is ; time and modes of har- 
vesting ; ordinary quantity per acre ; modes of threshing ; 
standard weight of wheat per bushel (60 lbs.) ; the grinding 
of wheat ; how millers are usually paid for grinding ; what 
is meant by miller's toll, and how much it is per bushel; 
how much flour is usually obtained per bushel, and what 
the other parts obtained from grinding are called, and what 
they are used for ; how many bushels of wheat are estima- 
ted to make a barrel of flour ; legal weight of the flour in a 
barrel ; present prices of wheat per bushel, and of flour per 
barrel ; describe the process of bread-making, etc.) 

3. The Egyptian or many-spiked wheat (Trit'icicm com- 
pos'itum), also called the "Corn of Abundance," is princi- 
pally cultivated in Egypt and Italy. It resembles spring 
wheat in its habits ; its grains are thinner than those of 
winter wheat, and it will bear great degrees of drouth 
without injury. Its spike is compound at the base, and 
the spikelets are three-flowered. 

There is also a kind of wheat called spelt wheat, grown 
in elevated situations in Switzerland and Germany, where 
common wheat will not ripen ; but the grain is light, yields 
but little flour, and makes but indifferent bread. 

Wheat starch is made from wheat. In some countries 
the wheat straw is manufactured largely into hats — the 
best straw being obtained from chalky lands. Leghorn 
hats are made from the straw of a bearded variety of 
wheat, which grows only about eighteen inches high, on 
poor sandy soils on the banks of the Arno, near Leghorn, 
in Italy. It is pulled green, and bleached like flax. 

Common Rye {Seca'le cere' ale, Lin. S., iii., 2 ; Nat. M., 

1840 the wheat crop of the United States amounted to 84,823,272 hush- 
els; in 1849 it amounted to 100,503,899 bushels; in 1857 it was esti- 
mated at 200,000,000 of bushels. During the year 1840 the average 
price of flour in New York city was $5 17 per barrel ; in 1849 it was 
$4 96 ; in 1855 it was $9 06. 



FOB, OBJECT LESSONS. 229 

Glu. End., ord. Grasses) is both an annual and biennial, 
from four to six feet high, bearing its grains in a spike at 
the top of the culm or stem. The spikelets (little spikes) are 
from two to three-flowered, and each usually produces two 
seeds, or grains. (In wheat they are usually four-flower- 
ed.) The lower pal'ece have long awns, or beards. Let 
the pupil distinguish the pal'ece from the (/hemes, as de- 
scribed under the head of wheat. The culm or stem is 
hairy beneath the spike; leaves lance-linear, having a rough 
edge, and rough above. (It will be a good exercise for 
the pupil to compare the rye and the wheat, and see if one 
is, in any respect, different from the other.) 

Although rye will ripen if sown in spring, it does better 
when treated like winter wheat. Eye flour was formerly 
much used for making bread, but has now mostly given 
place, in this country and Western Europe, to wheat. In 
Central and Northern Europe it is still much used, and 
especially in the sandy districts south of the Baltic Sea 
and the Gulf of Finland. 

Rye is liable to a disease, which produces in the head 
the growth of a brownish, smutty, and poisonous substance 
called ergot. Terrible epidemic diseases have been occa- 
sioned in Europe by the use of such diseased rye. 

(Let the pupils give an account of rye — the sowing, 
grinding, the flour, etc., similar to the directions given 
about wheat,) 

Barley is a species of bread corn, of which there are 
several varieties. Common Spring Barley (Hor'deum vul- 
ga're, Lin. S., in., 2 ; Nat. M., Glu. End., ord. Grasses) is a 
four-rowed barley, and the kind most commonly cultivated. 
It grows from two to three feet high. The leaves are lance- 
linear, nearly smooth. Observe that where they join the 
stem they are furnished with a sharp ridge or projection 
on the under side. This is called car'inate or boat-shaped, 
or keeled. The spike is about three inches long, and is 
heavily awned or bearded, both in the glumes and the pal- 
ece. Let the pupils compare barley, in this particular, with 
wheat and rye. , 



230 MANUAL OF INFOEMATION 

Winter Barley, a six-rowed barley, a more hardy species 
than spring barley, has also a shorter and thicker spike, 
and a larger grain. 

There is also a long-eared or two-rowed barley, which is 
beardless. Other species are described by botanists. 

Barley flour was once thought to make excellent bread. 
The Romans cultivated it for their horses, and also for the 
army. The Roman gladiators were called Hordiarii, from 
their feeding on this grain. A large proportion of the pop- 
ulation of Wales, and of some counties of western England, 
still subsists chiefly on barley bread. 

Barley is now, however, chiefly cultivated to be made 
into malt, which is used in brewing ale, porter, and beer. 
For this purpose the grain is steeped in water, and fer- 
mented in heaps until it begins to germinate, when the 
germination is arrested by sudden drying, called kiln-dry- 
ing. In this process of malting a part of the mucilage or 
starch of the grain is converted into sugar, so that the to- 
tal quantity of sugar, the source of spirit, is increased. 
The produce of barley varies, according to the soil, prepa- 
ration, season, etc., from twenty to sixty or seventy bushels 
to the acre. It is a tender plant, and easily hurt in any 
stage of its growth. A little more than seven millions of 
bushels were raised in the United States in the year 1850. 

Buckwheat (Poly g' onum fagopyr'um, or Fagopyr'um 
esculen'tum, Lin. S., viii., 3 ; Nat. M., Ang. Exog., ord. 
Buckwheat*), though not belonging, botanically, to the 
Cereals, is used as a bread fruit, and may therefore be de- 
scribed here. The Germans call it Beech-wheat, from the 
resemblance which the grains bear in shape to the nuts of 
the beech-tree. Specimens of this plant should be obtained 
and examined by the pupils. Let them describe it. It is 
an annual herb. Calyx five-parted, and withering, of a pink 
color. This plant has, properly, no petals or flower leaves ; 
but what appears to be the corolla is a colored calyx. Sta- 
mens, 8 ; styles, 3. Leaves cordate or heart-shaped, some 

* In this same order are found the sorrels, rhuharb, docks, persicarias, 
etc., and the sea-side grapes of the West Indies. 



FOR OBJECT LESSORS. 231 

of them tending to hastate or spear-shape. Stem from two 
to four feet high, branching, green, with a reddish tinge. 
Fruit or seed triangular, brownish-black on the outside, 
and white within. This plant is not only cultivated, but it 
grows wild also in old fields. The flowers are much sought 
after by bees ; but buckwheat-honey is of a dark color, and 
has a rank taste. 

Buckwheat is usually sown in June; and it grows so 
rapidly that it generally ripens its seeds within about one 
hundred days from the time of sowing. It will grow in 
any soil, even where there is little else than sand ; but it 
thrives best in dry ground which has been thoroughly 
plowed and pulverized. From thirty to forty bushels per 
acre may be considered a good yield ; but sixty or more 
bushels to the acre have been obtained, and from only one 
bushel of seed. About nine millions of bushels were raised 
in the United States in the year 1850. The grain is excel- 
lent for feeding pigeons and poultry, and in the form of 
" buckwheat cakes" it is a delicious article of food for the 
human race. 

Rice ( Ory'za sati'va, Lin. S., vi., 2 ; Nat. M., Glu. End., 
ord. Grasses), one of the most important of the Cereals, is 
supposed to have been originally brought from Southern 
Asia, where it is still almost the universal food of the inhab- 
itants. It is more extensively consumed than any other 
grain. Rice is mostly an annual plant ; culm or stalk from 
two to five feet high, erect, simple, round, and jointed; 
leaves long, rough, and lance-linear ; fruit in a terminating 
panicle. Each grain is terminated with an awn or beard, 
as shown in the cut, and inclosed in a rough yellow husk. 
The stalk is quite similar to that of wheat, but the joints are 
more numerous. The whole plant, before ripening, bears a 
near resemblance to barley. Before the rice is cleared of 
the husk it is called paddy. The rice of commerce has 
been parboiled in caldrons, partly to destroy the vegetative 
principle, so that it may keep better, and partly to facili- 
tate the process of removing the husks. 

There are several varieties of this Grain. Common rice 



232. MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

is a marsh plant. If the ground on which it is sown should 
become dry before the plants arrive at maturity they with- 
er. The best rice produced in the world is believed to be 
that grown on the salt-marsh lands of South Carolina and 
Georgia. It ripens in about six months from the time of 
sowing. The yield per acre varies from 20 to 60 bushels, 
each bushel weighing from 45 to 48 pounds when cleaned. 
Hence it is lighter than wheat. 

There is a variety called early rice, which ripens in about 
four months. Mountain rice, sown on mountain lands and 
other dry soils, may be treated as a biennial, and sown in 
autumn. The grain is longer than in other varieties, and 
has longer awns ; but the produce is only about 20 bushels 
to the acre. What is called clammy rice .grows both on 
wet and on dry lands. 

In Carolina rice-seed is sown early in March, in rows, in 
the bottom of trenches which are about 18 inches apart, 
and carefully covered by hand. After this the water, 
which has been kept back by the floodgates, is let in, and 
for about a week is allowed to cover the ground several 
inches. It is then drawn off; but when the plants, which 
shoot up rapidly, are about four inches high, the fields are 
again overflowed, and remain in this condition some two 
months. After this they are hoed repeatedly, and are 
overflowed for the third time about the middle of July, 
the water now remaining until the grain is actually ripen- 
ed. This alternate flooding and drying of the land in so 
hot a climate, renders the cultivation of rice exceedingly 
unhealthy to the negroes who perform the labor. The rice 
harvest usually commences at the end of August, and ex- 
tends through the month of September. The male negroes 
cut the rice with a sickle; the females follow and collect 
it into bundles. When ripe the rice stalks turn yellow, the 
same as those of wheat. The threshing is usually perform- 
ed with flails. The cultivators of rice in the United States 
sometimes suffer severely from the depredations of im- 
mense flocks of the rice-birds, commonly called bobolink in 
the Northern States, and the reed-bird in Delaware. This 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 233 

bird is about six or seven inches long ; the head and under 
parts of its body are black ; the upper parts are a mixture 
of black, white, and yellow ; and the legs are red. Irving 
has written a beautiful sketch of its habits, which Ave had 
not room for in the Fourth Reader. 

It is said that the average yield of rice in the rich mead- 
ow lands of Lombardy, Italy, is one hundred bushels to the 
acre, from three bushels of seed. In the year 1850, two 
hundred and fifteen millions of pounds of rice were pro- 
duced in the United States. 

Millet. — Of the grains cultivated under this name there 
are several distinct kinds, belonging to different families of 
plants, but all are annuals. The first that is represented 
on the Chart is commonly known aspanicled millet (Pan'- 
icum milia'ceum, Lin. S., iii., 2 ; Nat. M., Glu. End., ord. 
Grasses). Of this kind there are two varieties, the brown 
and the yellow. This kind of millet grows from two to 
three feet high, producing its seeds on a large, open, and 
nodding panicle, as represented on the Chart. It is now 
raised chiefly for feeding poultry, but was formerly much 
used in the place of rice. The seeds or grains are the 
smallest of the cereals, but an immense number is borne on 
each stalk. 

Indiati Millet {Sor'ghnm vulga're, Lin. S., iii., 2, etc.), 
also sometimes called Grand Millet, and Sorghum, and in 
the West Indies Negro Guinea Corn, grows from five to 
eight feet high, with an erect culm or stalk, round, solid 
with pith, leaves carinate or keel-shaped, like those of bar- 
ley, and lanceolate. The panicle is erect until the seeds 
are ripe. Its long awns, or bristles, effectually defend it 
from the birds. In India the sorghum is still largely cul- 
tivated, and in Arabia and Syria it forms a large part of the 
food of the inhabitants. The flour of this cereal is white, 
and good bread and cakes are made of it. Brooms are 
made of the spikes. Broom-corn is a species of sorghum. 
Its uses are well known. The Chinese sugar-cane is also 
supposed to be a variety of the sorghum or Indian millet. 

Italian or German Millet {Seta'ria Ital'ica, or German'- 



234 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

ica), also represented on the Chart, is cultivated in some 
parts of Europe. The Italians make from the flour a kind 
of bread which is dark-colored and coarse. 

The Common Oat (Ave'na sati'va, Lin. S., iii., 2 ; Nat. 
M., Glu. End., ord. Grasses) is an annual, growing from 
two to four feet high, with leaves linear-lanceolate, veined, 
rough ; the culm or stalk having an open panicle, with 
pendulous spikelets. The grain of the oat, although used 
chiefly as food for horses, is also used as a bread corn in 
some countries, and especially in Scotland and the north- 
ern parts of England. Twenty-eight pounds of grain yield 
about sixteen pounds of meal. Oat-meal gruel is an excel- 
lent article of diet for the sick. 

There are many varieties of the oat in cultivation, such 
as the common beardless oats; white, black, gray, and 
brown or red oats ; the Egyptian, Polish, imperial, and po- 
tato oats, etc. "What is called the animal oat (Ave'na ster'- 
ilis) is sometimes cultivated as an object of curiosity. Aft- 
er the seeds have fallen off the strong beard is so sensitive 
to changes in the atmosphere as to be kept in apparently 
spontaneous motion, when they resemble some grotesque 
insect crawling on the ground. 

The oat is the hardiest of the cereals, and. is suited to 
climates too hot or too cold for either wheat or rye, al- 
though it thrives best in northern latitudes. In this coun- 
try its growth is confined principally to the Middle, "West- 
ern,- and Northern States. The yield of the common va- 
rieties varies from 40 to 90 bushels and upward to the 
acre ; and the different varieties vary in weight from 25 to 
50 pounds to the bushel. The total produce of oats in the 
United States in the year 1850 was but little less than one 
hundred and fifty millions of bushels. Prices vary from 
25 to 60 cents per bushel. 

Let the pupils bring in samples of stalks and grain — tell 
the kinds with which they are acquainted ; times and modes 
of sowing, and harvesting ; prices, uses, etc. 

Maize, or Indian Corn (Ze'a mays, ~L\n. S., xix., 3 ; Nat. 
M., Glu. End., ord. Grasses) is an annual, having a strong, 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 235 

erect, reedy, smooth, jointed stalk, grooved on one side, 
growing from five to fifteen feet high, and provided with 
alternate leaves which are linear-lanceolate, channeled, from 
two to three feet long, and two or three inches Tbroad at 
the base. Let the pupils examine specimens, and describe 
them in all these particulars. 

This is one of those plants which has its stamens and its 
pistils on different parts of the same plant, instead of 
growing together in one flower. (See Chart No. XX., 
Class xix. in Linnaean system ; and Fifth Reader, pages 
143, 193.) Thus, at the top of the stalk is produced a 
bunch of staminate flowers, of various colors, in a panicle 
of racemes, the whole being known as the tassel. Each 
little spikelet will be found to be two-flowered, having 
glumes and pal' em, and each flower having three anthers. 
The pistillate flowers of this plant are a spike called the 
ear ; and the pistils themselves are what is called the silky 
and the glumes are the husks. The kernels are in eight, 
ten, twelve rows, etc. — always some even number, and yel- 
low, white, red, or purple. 

(The pupils should be led to notice and describe all 
these particulars about the flowers of the corn. The teach- 
er will find here much matter for cultivating their powers 
of observation. They will probably suppose that & flower 
consists of a colored corolla only. Tell them that the es- 
sential parts of a flower consist of stamens and pistils only. 
(See Fourth Reader, page 218.) Explain to them the use 
of the pollen of the stamens. If this pollen can not reach 
the pistil, the latter will produce no seed ; and if the pollen 
of one kind of corn be scattered upon the pistils of another 
kind, the ear will show a mixture of different kinds of ker- 
nels. This effect is often seen when two kinds of corn are 
planted near each other, as the wind often carries the pol- 
len a great distance. Pupils may themselves try the ex- 
periment. When an ear of common corn is just silking 
out, let them sprinkle the silk, for a few days in succession, 
with pollen from sweet corn, and when the ear is ripe there 
will be found kernels like those of sweet corn mingled with 



236 MANUAL OF INFORMATION" 

the others. Observation and experiments like the forego- 
ing will be worth, to pupils, more than volumes of unaided 
reading about the same subjects, and will render their read- 
ing much more interesting and valuable to them.) 

Indian corn is a native of America, and was unknown in 
Europe until after the discovery of this country. It is still 
found growing wild in some of the West India Islands, in 
Central America, and in the humid forests of Paraguay. 
(See Fourth Reader, page 193.) Its produce on a given 
extent of land is greater than that of any other grain. It 
has the widest geographical range of all the cereals, grow- 
ing luxuriantly at the equator, and forty or fifty degrees 
on each side of it. The stalks, like those of the sugar-cane, 
contain considerable sugar. 

Let pupils tell the time and mode of planting corn, hoe- 
ing, harvesting, threshing or shelling, quantity raised per 
acre, legal weight per bushel, uses made of the unground 
corn, of the meal, etc. 

The Sugar-cane (Sac'charum qfficina'rum, Lin. S., iii., 
2 ; Nat. M., Glu. End., ord. Grasses), although not proper- 
ly one of the cereals, because it does not produce edible 
grains, may, nevertheless, properly be described here, as it 
belongs to the order of Grasses, the same as maize and the 
other cereals. 

The sugar-cane is a perennial plant, very sensitive to 
cold, and is, therefore, restricted to the regions bordering 
on the tropics, where there is little or no frost. It has a 
solid culm, or stalk, with pith, closely jointed, growing 
from eight' to twenty feet high, erect, with broad, flat, 
linear-lanceolate leaves like those of maize. It bears its 
flowers at the top of the stalk, in a panicle from one to 
two feet in length, composed of numerous, long, thread-like, 
moderately spreading racemes, which are richly clothed 
with the long, white, silky hairs that envelope the flowers. 
(For the appearance of this panicle see page 193, Fifth 
Reader.) The flowers are in pairs, one sessile or seated on 
the spikelet, and the other having a flower stem or ped'i- 
cel. These flowers have glumes an&pal'ece, and hence the 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 237 

sugar-cane is classed among the grasses. Where the plant 
itself can be obtained, pupils should describe the flowers, 
etc., from actual observation. Numerous varieties of the 
cane are cultivated. 

The sugar-cane is propagated by cuttings from the root- 
end, planted in hills or trenches, in spring or autumn. 
These cuttings send up shoots which in eight, ten, or 
twelve months, are from six to ten feet high, and fit to be 
cut down for the mill. They are usually cut before the 
plaut is in flower. A plantation lasts from six to ten years, 
when the roots, having become old, and having lost their 
vigor, require to be renewed. The saccharine substance in 
the cane varies from ten to thirty per cent. ; in the beet 
root, from five to thirteen per cent. 

Sugar-mills are merely iron rollers, which are placed in 
pairs, and between which the canes are passed. The juice 
thus pressed out is strained, clarified, and boiled into sirup, 
after which it is crystallized, and is then put into hogsheads 
having apertures through which the molasses drains into a 
cistern below. This hogshead sugar is the common Mus- 
covado or brown sugar. Sugar is refined in various ways 
— by heating the sirup with blood, eggs, milk^etc, and 
skimming off the impurities which rise, thus producing 
what is called clayed or loaf sugar, refined sugar, double 
refined, etc. 

The sugar-cane is cultivated extensively in Louisiana, 
Mississippi, etc., where it formerly produced as many as 
three or four thousand pounds of sugar to the acre, but, 
owing to injudicious rotation of crops, and exhaustion of 
the soil, the product is now seldom more than one thou- 
sand pounds to, the acre — about one hogshead. By the 
free use of guano, eight thousand pounds to the acre have 
been produced in the island of Mauritius. 

According to the census of 1850, the cane sugar made in 
this country amounts to about 248,000,000 pounds annu- 
ally (248,000 hogsheads, at 1000 lbs. to the hogshead), be- 
sides more than nine millions of gallons of molasses. The 
amount varies greatly in different years. The average an- 



238 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

nual consumption of sugar in Great Britain is estimated at 
twenty-four pounds per individual, and in the United States 
at forty pounds. This latter fact is conclusive that the 
people of the United States live more comfortably, and 
even luxuriously, than any other people in the world, be- 
cause they have more real income to expend in subsistence 
and its comforts. 

The annual production of sugar of all kinds in the world 
is estimated at about 1,600,000 tons; but in this are in- 
cluded 200,000 tons of beet sugar, and an equal quantity of 
sorghum and maple sugar — the latter the produce of the 
United States chiefly. 

Let pupils tell and describe the kinds of sugar and mo- 
lasses Avith which they are acquainted, prices per pound, 
gallon, etc., and what purposes both are used for. Also 
mode of making maple sugar. The average wholesale 
prices of New Orleans sugar in the city of New York, 
from 1854 to 1859 inclusive, ranged from 4f cents to 9 
cents per pound. In 185 V the supply was small, and 
prices high. 

^ IV. Fruits of Warm Countries. 

As vegetation is far more profuse and luxuriant within 
the tropics than in the temperate and cold regions, so 
fruits are remarkably abundant in the torrid zone, and 
form there the principal food of the inhabitants. Some of 
the more important of these tropical fruits, which are often 
found in our markets, either fresh or preserved in various 
forms, are here enumerated, with a brief description. 

The Cocoanut-tree (Co'cos nucif'era, Lin. S., xix., 6 ; 
Nat. M., Agl. End., ord. Palms), of which we have given a 
representation, together with clusters of fruit, both ripe and 
just forming, is a native of most places within the tropics, 
and is extensively cultivated for its fruit, juices, oil, etc. 
It grows from fifty to ninety feet in height, with a straight 
trunk, and without branches. The leaves are from twelve 
to fifteen feet long; the flowers, of a pale green color, 
come out around the top of the trunk in large clusters, in- 



FOE OBJECT LESSONS. 239 

closed in a sheath ; the nuts succeed them, about 100 to a 
tree, in clusters of ten or twelve. 

The cocoanut, in the husk, is as large as a man's head. 
If gathered fresh, it is green on the outside ; but, as it 
hardens, it becomes of a reddish brown. It contains about 
a pint and a half of a liquor-like water, milky, and sweet, 
and agreeable to the taste. As the shell hardens, the liq- 
uor diminishes, till at last it is entirely absorbed by the 
surrounding white pulpy substance. This latter once con- 
stituted the principal food of the natives of many of the 
islands of the East and West Ladies. The cocoanut yields, 
by pressure, a considerable quantity of oil, which is now 
much used in manufacturing candles and soap. The palm 
oil from the coast of Guinea is from another species of palm. 

For the various uses of the cocoanut-tree, see Fifth Read- 
er, page 189. 

The Mango or Mango Apple {3fangif era In'dica, Lin. 
S., v., 1 ; Nat. M., Ang. Exog., ord. Anacards*) is a fruit as 
highly valued in tropical, as the peach in temperate cli- 
mates. It grows on a tree about twenty feet high, which 
is as extensively cultivated in tropical Asia as apple and 
pear-trees in this country. It is also found in the West In- 
dies. The fruit is something like a nectarine, but more 
compressed, longer, and more curved ; it is yellow and red- 
dish; its flesh is soft and pulpy; and it contains a large 
stone covered with coarse fibres. The fruit cuts like an 
apple, but is more juicy, and is often as large as a big man's 
fist. 

There are many varieties of the mango, differing, like 
apples, in figure, size, color, and taste. In this country we 
have only the unripe fruit, which is found in our markets 
in a pickled state. 

The common Fig-tree {Fi'cus car'ica, Lin. S., xx., 3 ; 
Nat. M., Ang. Exog., ord. Morads\ ) is a native of the tem- 

* From the Greek ana, like (in composition), and kardia, the heart, 
in allusion to the form of the fruit of the leading plants of this order, 
such as the cashew-nut. 

f From the Greek morea, which was the name of the mulberry. The 



240 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

perate regions of Asia, where it grows from fifteen to thir- 
ty feet in height, producing two or three crops in the same 
year. It is also extensively cultivated in Southern Europe 
— in Italy, Southern France, and Spain — for the'sake of its 
delicious fruit, which is about the size of a peach, fleshy, 
soft, hollow within, and shaped like a top. The cultivated 
varieties are numerous, with variously colored fruit — bluish- 
black, red, purple, green, yellow, and white. Figs, when 
ripe, are for the most part dried in ovens to preserve them, 
and then packed very closely in the small boxes and baskets 
in which they are imported. The best figs come from 
Southern Turkey. Dried figs are also a very considerable 
article of commerce in France, Spain, and Italy, besides af- 
fording, as in the East, a principal article of sustenance for 
the population. Fig-trees are frequently cultivated in green- 
houses in our Northern States. 

Unlike other fruits, the fig is not produced from any ap- 
parent blossom, but is borne, generally singly, upon the 
young branches, the flower being included in and forming 
part of the fruit. The floral organs are readily seen in the 
fresh-gathered fruit, and sometimes also in the thick-skin- 
ned, imperfectly ripened dried figs of commerce. The fig 
is often mentioned in the Old and in the New Testament. 
The Romans held the fruit in great estimation. Pliny, the 
naturalist, enumerates twenty-nine varieties that were cul- 
tivated in his time. He says of figs, " They increase the 
strength of young people, preserve the elderly in better 
health, and make them look younger, and with fewer 
Avrinkles." 

The common Date-palm (Phce'nix dactylif era, Lin. S., 
xx., 3 ; Nat. M., Agl. End., ord. Palms) is a tall, majestic 

order is, therefore, that of the Mulberries, and includes the mulberries 
and the figs, and many plants allied to them. The famous banyan-tree 
is a species of fig. Caoutchouc, or India-rubber, is produced by many 
plants of this order ; and indeed all the India-rubber of Continental In- 
dia is obtained from the milky juice of a fig-tree — the fi'cus elas'tica. 
Vulcanized India-rubber, a compound of caoutchouc and sulphur, is 
manufactured into a great variety of useful articles. 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 2-11 

tree, with a rugged trunk, having leaves six or eight feet 
long, with their pinnae, or feather-like side leaves, three feet 
long, and each little side leaf little more than an inch broad. 
This tree, like all others of the twentieth class in the Lin- 
ncean System, belongs to that class whose staminate and 
pistillate* flowers grow on separate trees. A drawing of 
the date-palm is given on the Chart, together with a clus- 
ter of dates. 

The berry of this tree is the fruit known as the date of 
commerce, upon which a considerable portion of the people 
of Egypt, Arabia, and Persia almost entirely subsist. A 
single tree will produce from 100 to 300 pounds of this 
fruit in one season. It begins to bear at from six to ten 
years of age, and is fruitful for more than 200 years. In 
Scripture this palm-tree is very appropriately made the 
emblem, not only of patience in well-doing, but of the re- 
wards of the righteous — a flourishing old age, a peaceful 
end, a glorious immortality.f 

Of dates there is an endless variety. Generally, howev- 
er, they may be described as being somewhat in the shape 
of an acorn, but usually larger, consisting of a thick, fleshy 
substance, within which is an oblong stone or kernel, hav- 
ing a furrow on one side. The best dates are of a reddish- 
yellow or orange color on the outside; but when they are 
allowed to remain on the tree till they are quite ripe, and 
have become soft, they are often of a bright red color. The 
Arabs press the ripe fruit into large baskets, and form of 
it a solid paste or cake ; and in the market this cake is cut 
out and sold by the pound. In Arabia this date-cake forms 
part of the daily food of all classes of people ; and in trav- 
eling it is dissolved in water, and thus affords a sweet and 
refreshing drink. All the refinements of Arabian cookery 
are exhausted in the preparation of dates ; and the Arabs 

* In botany, the staminate flowers are called the male flowers, and the 
pistillate the female, as it is only the latter which produce the seed, fruit, 
etc. It is therefore only the female date-tree that produces dates. 

t See the Song of Solomon, vii., 6, 7 ; Psalms, xcii., 12, 14 ; 1 Kings, 
vi., 29 ; Lev., xxiii., 40, etc. 

L 



242 MANUAL OF INFOEMATION 

say that a good housewife will daily supply her lord, for a 
month, with a dish of dates differently dressed. 

The Stone Pine (Pi'nus pi'nea, Lin. S., xix., 15 ; Nat. 
M., Gym. Exog., ord. Conifers), represented on the Chart, 
is the cone of a species of pine found not only in the for- 
ests of Syria, but also in Southern Italy. It was called by 
the Latins Niixpinea, or pine-nut. The trees of the stone 
pine, which grow to the height' of forty feet, are much 
planted in the gardens and villas of Rome and Florence, 
and there is an immense forest of them in Ravenna, in Italy. 
The cone, when ripe, and when thoroughly dried, or thrown 
for a few minutes into the fire, separates into many com- 
partments, from each of which drops a smooth white nut, 
in shape like the seed of the date. The shell of the nut is 
very hard, and within it is the fruit, which is much used in 
Syria in various preparations of rice and in sweetmeats ; 
and throughout Italy the fruit is an article of commerce, 
and is eaten both by the poor and the rich. The fruit is 
sweet, somewhat like almonds, but with a slight flavor of 
turpentine. 

The Olive-tree ( O'lea Europw'a, Lin. S., ii., 1 ; Nat. 
M., Ang. Exog., ord. Oliveworts) is a pale evergreen, from 
fifteen to thirty feet in height, a native of Syria, Greece, 
and Northern Africa. It is also found in different parts 
of France, Spain, and Italy, where numerous varieties have 
been produced by cultivation. It produces an immense 
number of white flowers. 

The wood of the olive-tree is heavy, compact, fine-grain- 
ed, and brilliant, of a reddish or yellowish tint, and is em- 
ployed by cabinet-makers to inlay the finer species of wood, 
which are contrasted with it in color, and to form light ar- 
ticles of ornament, such as dressing-cases, snuff-boxes, etc. 
The wood of the roots is beautifully marbled. 

But the chief value of this tree is the oil obtained from 
its fruit, which is used as a substitute for butter in all the 
countries where the olive grows, and is largely exported 
as an article of commerce for use at table in preparing 
salads. The fruit of the olive is a kind of plum, egg-shaped, 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 243 

from three fourths of an inch to an inch and a half in length, 
with a smooth skin, which is generally of a violet color 
when ripe ; but in certain varieties it is of various shades 
of red, yellow, and purple-black. The pulp is greenish, and 
within it is an oblong pointed stone, having two cells. The 
oil of the olive is furnished by the pulp, which is a charac- 
teristic almost peculiar to this fruit ; whereas the oil from 
most other vegetables is produced from the seeds, nut, or 
kernel. What is called sweet oil is olive-oil. 

The oil is obtained by pressing the pulp, but without 
breaking the stone. It is received into vessels half filled 
with water, from which it is skimmed, and put into tubs, 
barrels, and bottles for use. The best olive-oil is of a 
bright pale amber color, without smell, and bland or mild 
to the taste. If kept too long, and especially in a warm 
place, it becomes rancid. The very best of the olive-oil is 
that called Florence oil, produced in the vicinity of Flor- 
ence, and generally imported in flasks surrounded by a kind 
of network formed of leaves. Jbucca oil is usually import- 
ed in jars holding about nineteen gallons each. Geneva 
oil is a fine kind. Gallipoli oil, from Gallipoli, in Southern 
Italy, is the kind chiefly imported into England. Sicily oil 
is of an inferior quality, and Spanish oil is the poorest. 
Olive-oil is the chief article of export from the kingdom of 
Naples. 

In Syria almost every dish is cooked in olive-oil, and the 
poorer kinds are used for lamps and the manufacture of 
soap. The green berry is also pickled, after being steeped 
in water some days to remove its bitter taste; and as a 
pickle it forms an important article of commerce, generally 
under the name of Picholines, after one Picholini, an Ital- 
ian, who first discovered the art of pickling olives. The 
olive is also eaten in its ripe state, without any prepara- 
tion, except, perhaps, with the addition of a little pepper 
and salt. 

The olive is a tree of slow growth, seldom producing 
berries before the seventh year ; but it lives several hund- 
red years — sometimes a thousand or more — and it bears 



244 MANUAL OF INFOEMATION 

abundantly to the very last, so long as there is a fragment 
of green wood remaining. 

In the Bible are numerous beautiful allusions to this tree, 
many of which can not be understood without a knowl- 
edge of its character and habits. The olive has been the 
emblem of peace among all nations, and the symbol of wis- 
dom, abundance, and prosperity of every kind. Among 
the ancients the oil was the emblem of joy and gladness ; 
it was employed by the Greeks in pouring out libations to 
their gods, while the branches formed the wreaths of the 
victors of the Olympian Games. " The trees went forth 
on a time to anoint a king over them ; and they said to 
the olive-tree, Reign thou over us." — Judges, ix., 8. 

The Pomegranate {Pu'nica grana'tum, Lin. S., xi., 1 ; 
Nat. M., Ang. Exog., ord. Myrtleblooms) bears consider- 
able resemblance, in its wild state, to the common haw- 
thorn ; but when cultivated in gardens and plantations, it 
changes from a thorny bush to a handsome tree, fifteen or 
twenty feet in height. Its leaves are of a beautiful green, 
opposite, about three inches long, half an inch to an inch 
broad in the middle, and the flowers, which are bell-shaped, 
are very fragrant, and of a bright scarlet color. The fruit, 
which is very beautiful to the eye and pleasant to the taste, 
is a pulpy, many-seeded berry, nearly round, encircled at 
the end opposite the stem with something resembling a 
crown, and covered with a thick, brittle rind. It is about 
the size of a large orange, and, when perfectly ripe, varies 
in color from bright yellow or green to a dark red. The 
pulp has a reddish color, and a pleasant sub-acid taste. 
Several vai-ieties are cultivated, not only for their fruit, but 
also as ornamental trees, and in some places as a hedge 
plant. It is found native in Northern Africa, Persia, Japan, 
and various parts of Asia, and has long been naturalized in 
the south of Europe, the West Indies, Mexico, and in South 
America. 

The value of the fruit of the pomegranate depends on 
the smallness of the seed and the largeness of the pulp. 
The Persians cultivate a variety which is nearly seedless, 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 245 

and which is imported from Cabul and Candahar, where 
the pomegranate grows in perfection. Ih hot countries 
the juice of the pomegranate assuages thirst in a degree 
most peculiar to it, from its pleasant acid, which is de- 
scribed by Moore as " full of rnelting sweetness." 

The pomegranate-tree partakes of the antiquity of the 
vine, the fig, and the olive, and in point of utility is num- 
bered with the grain-bearing plants and with honey, all 
constituting the principal food of Eastern nations in the 
early stages of civilization. The Romans called it the Car- 
thaginian apple, because first brought to them from Car- 
thage. It is frequently mentioned in the Old Testament. 
While the Israelites sojourned in the wilderness it was se- 
lected as one of the ornaments of the robe of the ephod. 
The two pillars of brass made by Hiram for the porch of 
Solomon's Temple were ornamented with carvings of the 
pomegranate. Solomon speaks of " an orchard of pome- 
granates, with pleasant fruits ;" and it is mentioned as one 
of the fruits discovered in the " Promised Land :" " A land 
of wheat, and barley, and vines, and pomegranates, a land 
of olives, and honey."" — Deuteronomy, viii., 8. 

The Banana {Mu'sa sapien'tum, Lin. S., v., 1 ; Nat. M., 
Agl. End., order Musads), a species of the plantain-tree, 
a native, chiefly, of the plains of the tropics, and found 
abundantly in the East and West Indies, Syria, etc., grows 
from fifteen to twenty feet in height, having leaves from 
three to ten feet in length, and nearly two feet in width. 
A variety of the banana — the plantain-tree proper — is ex- 
tensively cultivated in Mexico. The fruit of both, from 
five to nine inches in length, and about an inch in diameter, 
is at first green, but when ripe is of a pale yellow color, 
and in some kinds dark purple. The fruit of the true ba- 
nana is shorter and rounder than that of the plantain, and 
has a softer pulp. The skin is peeled off, and the inside 
eaten, which is of a sickish sweet taste, and a doughy feel 
in the mouth. People are not apt to like these fruits at 
first, but soon become extravagantly fond of them. It is 
the fruit of the plantain-tree proper {Mu'sa paradisi'aca) 



246 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

which, under the name of banana, is so abundant in the 
markets of New* York and other cities in early summer. 

When the plantain or banana plant is full grown, the 
spike of flowers, of a pink color, appears from the centre 
of the leaves, nearly four feet in length, and nodding on 
one side. When these spikes are filled with fruit they are 
often so large as to weigh more than forty pounds. For- 
merly this fruit was called Adam's apple, from a notion 
that it was the forbidden fruit of Eden ; while others sup- 
posed it to be the grapes brought out of the promised land 
by the spies of Moses. 

This fruit in Mexico is used, not merely as an occasional 
luxury, but rather as an established article of subsistence, 
as it forms a principal part of the principal food of the peo- 
ple. It is not only eaten fresh, but it is roasted or boiled ; 
it is also made into tarts, sliced and fried with butter ; it 
is also dried and preserved as a sweetmeat. A fermented 
liquor is made from the fruit, and, in some countries, a 
cloth from the fibres of the trunk. The leaves make ex- 
cellent mats, and are also used for making baskets and for 
thatching cottages. 

A plantation of bananas requires little care, and the 
product to the acre is said to be, to that of wheat, as 130 
to 1 of nutritive substance, and to that of potato as 40 
to 1. The apathy and indolence of the natives in the hot 
regions of Mexico has been ascribed, and probably with 
good reason, to the facility with which this fruit supplies 
them with subsistence. 

The Pine-apple (Brorne'lia ana'nas, Lin. S., v., 1 ; Nat. 
M., Agl. End., order JBromelworts), a native of South Amer- 
ica, and now extensively cultivated in all warm climates, is 
a short-stemmed or stemless plant, growing about four feet 
high, with rigid leaves fringed with spines, producing in 
their centre a large conical spike of purple flowers ; and 
this spike, with its bracts, stem, etc., becomes blended into 
one fleshy mass, forming the conical fruit. The cultivated 
fruit is well known for its sweetness and fine aromatic 
flavor ; but in its wild state the fruit is excessively acid, 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 247 

burning the gums. It is now considered one of the most 
important fruits in the world. Many varieties have been 
produced by cultivation. It is found abundantly in our 
sea-port towns in the summer season, being brought by 
ship-loads. In the West Indies and South America, one 
species, in its wild state, is used for fencing pasture-lands, 
for which purpose it answers well on account of its strong 
prickly leaves. 

The Bread-fruit-tree {Artocar'pus inci'sa^JAn. S., xix., 
1 ; Nat. M., Aug. Exog., ord. Artocarps* ) grows in the 
South Sea Islands, 30 or 40 feet high. It has alternate, 
deeply-gashed, bright-green leaves, about two feet long ; 
and the whole tree, and the fruit before it is ripe, abound 
in a very tenacious milky juice. Like all plants of the 
nineteenth Linnaean class, it has the pistillate and staminate 
flowers separate on the same plant. The staminate flower 
is a club-shaped catkin, as seen on the right of the lower 
part of the cut on the Chart ; and the pistillate or female 
flower consists of numerous pistils, with their ovaries or 
seed-vessels arranged over a fleshy receptacle, which be- 
comes a globe-like berry or fruit. This fruit is of a pale 
green color, about the size of a child's head, marked on the 
surface with irregular six-sided depressions, and containing 
a white and somewhat fibrous pulp. The eatable part, ly- 
ing between the skin and the core, is as white as snow, 
and somewhat of the consistence of new bread. It is roast- 
ed before being eaten, or boiled or fried in palm-oil. The 
natives of Otaheite cultivate eight or nine varieties. This 
fruit has been introduced into the West Indies, but it is 
there considered inferior to the banana, which produces 
even more bountifully than the bread-fruit. 

The Orange-tree ( Cit'rus auran'tium, Lin. S., xii., 1 ; 

* From the Greek artos, bread, and karjws, fruit — the Bread-fruits. 
In this order are found not only the eatable bread-fruits, and the cow- 
tree of South America, which yields a copious supply of rich and whole- 
some milk, but also the poisonous upas-tree of Java. The order of 
Artocarps is nearly allied to the Morads already described ; and some 
of the artocarps also produce caoutchouc or India-rubber. 



248 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

Nat. M., Ang. Exog., ord. Citronworts) is an evergreen, at- 
taining a height of from fifteen to twenty-five feet, having 
beautiful green, ovate, oblong, and acute leaves, and a 
trunk of a delicate ash-gray. Its native country is un- 
doubtedly China ; but it is now extensively cultivated in 
all warm countries, and is also a favorite in Northern 
green-houses. The flowers of the sweet orange are of a 
delicate white, but in the acid varieties they are slightly 
tinged with pink. They are delightfully fragrant ; and as 
the tree is at one and the same time in all stages of its 
bearing — in flower, in green and in ripe fruit, inviting the 
" hand to pull and the palate to taste" — it is hardly possi- 
ble to conceive or imagine any object more delightful. 

The fruit of the orange is spherical, with a reddish or 
orange-colored rind. This external covering is of a spongy 
texture, with but little juice or sap, but containing numer- 
ous little glands which secrete an acrid, volatile oil, very 
inflammable, and of a strong pungent taste. The interior 
of the fruit is usually divided into from nine to twelve car- 
pels or cells, which contain the pulp, seeds, and juice ; and 
these cells are divided by a whitish leathery skin, radia- 
ting from the centre to the rind. The cells may thus be 
easily separated without wasting the juice. In some va- 
rieties the seeds are entirely wanting, a result supposed 
to have been attained by repeated removes from the orig- 
inal stock by grafting. 

There are almost as many varieties of the orange as of 
the apple. From the flowers, fruit, and leaves of the Ber- 
gamot variety is obtained the essence known by that name. 
The pulp of the bitter or Seville orange, boiled with sugar, 
makes an excellent marmalade. The productiveness of the 
common orange is enormous, as, according to Lindley, a 
single tree has been known to produce 20,000 oranges fit 
for packing, exclusive of the damaged fruit and waste, 
which may be calculated at one third more. The fruit of 
the orange may be obtained fresh in any region of the 
globe, and at almost every season of the year. The princi- 
pal imported varieties are the Maltese, of a reddish, deli- 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 249 

cious pulp ; the large Havana, sweet, with a rough rind ; 
the St. Augustine, still larger than the Havana, and contain- 
ing about 240 oranges to the bushel; the Valencia; the 
Sicilian — rather acid, and the Provence, and the Genoese. 
There are also Seville, Oporto, Malaga, etc., and the bitter 
oranges of Cuba and Florida, of a beautiful color, but unfit 
to be eaten, on account of their bitter flavor. 

In this same order of Citronworts are the lemon, lime, 
citron, and shaddock, nearly allied to the oranges. 

The Lemon, the well-known fine acid fruit of commerce, 
is oblong, and of a greenish-yellowish color. The juice of 
lemon, or citric acid, as it is often called, may be preserved 
in bottles for a considerable time by covering it with a thin 
stratum of oil, to keep it from the air. It is used to make 
lemonade, and to flavor sirups, etc. The Lime is a spher- 
ical fruit, smaller than the lemon, and somewhat inferior to 
it, but is much esteemed in the green state for preserves. 
The Citron is a rough fruit, oblong, with a very thick rind, 
larger than the largest lemon, but inferior in the quality of 
its acid. The candied citron of the confectioners is made 
from its skin. The fruit of the Shaddock, which is spher- 
ical, and has a thick, white, and bitter rind, grows in Japan 
to the size of a child's head. It is a worthless fruit ; but 
it furnishes the best stocks for grafting the orange and 
lemon. 



CHAET No. XXII. ECONOMICAL USES 
OF PLANTS— continued. 

V. Medicinal Plants. 

The Rhubakb (Hhe'um palma'tum, Lin. S., ix., 3 ; Nat. 
M., Ang. Exog., ord. Buckwheats) is an important medicinal 
plant, a native of China and Tartary, whence large quanti- 
ties of the dried root are exported. The best is that which 
reaches us by the way of Russia, and which is improperly 
called "Turkey" rhubarb. The color of the root is a lively 
yellow, streaked with red and gray. Its texture is dense, 

L2 



250 MANUAL OF INFORMATION" 

and, when reduced to powder, it is entirely yellow. The 
odor of the root is peculiar, and its taste is nauseous, bit- 
ter, and astringent. The leaves are palmate and acumin- 
ate, as shown on the Chart. 

The rhubarb known in this country as the garden rhu- 
barb, or pie-plant, and the leaf-stems or petioles of which 
are so extensively used for making pies, is the Bhe'um rha- 
pon'ticum, the root of ivhich is quite similar, in its medic- 
inal properties, to the imported rhubarb, but less powerful. 
Its leaves are very large, generally obtuse, and heart-ovate ; 
stem stout and fleshy, hollow, growing from three to four 
feet high, and producing dense clusters of greenish- white 
flowers. Its form is in every respect like that of the Turkey 
rhubai'b represented on the Chart, with the exception of 
the leaves. 

The Saesapabilla (Smi'lax sarsaparil'la, Lin. S., xx., 6 ; 
Nat. M., Agl. End., ord. Sarsaparillas) is a half shrubby 
plant, well known as a drug, growing about four feet high, 
with a prickly quadrangular stem, but having the branches 
unarmed ; leaves oblong-ovate, acuminate, three to six inch- 
es long and half as wide, with tendrils starting from the 
base of the petioles ; flowers white and green, or yellow- 
ish ; berries large and globular, and of a bright pink-red 
when fully ripe ; root long, slender, and creeping, covered 
with a wrinkled bark, which in some varieties is brown, 
but that from Jamaica is deep red. 

The bark of the root, which is the only useful part of the 
plant, is inodorous, and has a mucilaginous, slightly bitter 
taste. The roots are imported in bales from Brazil, the 
West Indies, Honduras, and Vera Cruz. Many species of 
the smilax — some found in Asia, and some in North Amer- 
ica — have the same medicinal properties as are found in 
the genuine drug. Preparations of sarsapsrilla have been 
a very popular medicine in the United States as a restora- 
tive to debilitated constitutions. In India the juice of the 
fresh tuber of one species is taken inwardly, and applied 
externally, for the cure of rheumatic affections. 

Jalap (Ipo'mea pur'ga, or Exogonium pur'ga, Lin. S., 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 251 

v., 1 ; Nat. M., Ang. Exog., ord. Bindweeds), so named from 
Jalapa, in Mexico, whence it is chiefly imported, is a pow- 
erful cathartic medicine, the root of a climbing or creeping 
plant, which grows about ten feet in length. It belongs to 
the same order of plants as our Morning-glory, Cypress- 
vine, Bindweeds, etc. 

The Jalap plant has a tuberous perennial root (as repre- 
sented at b on the Chart), the taste of which is exceeding- 
ly nauseous, accompanied by a sweetish bitterness ; it has 
a smooth, twining, annual stem ; a salver-shaped, red corol- 
la, with a long cylindrical tube. The leaves, which are 
cordate-ovate, resemble those of the ivy. The flowers open 
only at night. 

The root, when brought to this country, is in thin slices. 
The dark, heavy, and resinous roots are the best ; but in- 
ferior "kinds are often ground up with the genuine drug. 
The powder is of a yellowish-gray color. It is estimated 
that 200,000 pounds of the pure Jalap, from Jalapa, are an- 
nually exported from Vera Cruz. The root of a single 
plant rarely exceeds a pound in weight. 

The Poppy {Pcvpa'ver somniferum, Lin. S., xii., 1 ; Nat. 
M., Ang. Exog., ord. Poppy worts), from which the drug 
called opium is obtained, supposed to be a native of Asia, 
but now found growing wild throughout Southern Europe, 
is an annual herb, with a stem growing from two to four 
feet high ; leaves large, gashed, clasping the stem, and re- 
sembling those of the lettuce ; flowers white, with four 
petals in the wild state, but increasing in numbers by cul- 
tivation, and resembling the flowers of the tulip ; flower- 
buds nodding, but erect in flower and in fruit. The seeds, 
which are small, but very numerous, are produced in a 
large roundish capsiile, which has openings at the top when 
ripe. 

All parts of the poppy contain a white, opaque, narcotic 
juice ; but as this juice abounds most in the capsules, these 
are the parts of the plant from which the drug is obtained, 
by the following process. When the capsules are half 
grown, longitudinal incisions are made, through their outer 



252 MANUAL OF INFOEMATION" 

coating only, at sunset, and in the morning the juice which 
has flown from them is scraped from the capsules by wom- 
en and children. This juice is afterward worked in the 
sunshine until it has attained a considerable degree of 
thickness, when it is formed by hand into cakes, and far- 
ther dried, in which form it is sold as opium. The best 
opium is of a reddish-brown or fawn color ; it has a strong, 
heavy, narcotic odor, and a bitter taste, accompanied by a 
sensation of acrid heat, or biting on the tongue and lips, if 
it be well chewed. 

The opium-poppy is very extensively cultivated in Brit- 
ish India, Persia, and Turkey. It grows readily in the 
middle and southern United States also, but, on account of 
the high wages of labor here, its cultivation for the sake of 
the drug would not seem to be profitable. From the seeds 
is obtained a wholesome oil, which possesses none of the 
narcotic properties of the drug. Olive-oil is often adulter- 
ated with it. 

As a medicine, opium acts at first as a powerful stimu- 
lus, soon followed by narcotic and sedative effects, destroy- 
ing the irritability of the stomach, and allaying pain in the 
most distant parts of the body. In moderate doses it in- 
creases the fullness, force, and frequency of the pulse, aug- 
ments the heat of the body, quickens respiration, and in- 
vigorates both the corporeal and mental functions, exhila- 
rating even to intoxication ; but by degrees these effects 
are succeeded by languor, lassitude, and sleep, and, in many 
instances, by headache, sickness, thirst, tremors, and other 
symptoms of debility, such as follow the excessive use of 
ardent spirits. In very large doses the pulse is at once 
diminished ; drowsiness and stupor immediately come on, 
and are followed by delirium, heavy breathing, cold sweats, 
convulsions, apoplexy, and death. 

But, notwithstanding these effects, opium is extensively 
used in Turkey, India, and China, both in chewing and in 
smoking, for the purpose of exhilarating the spirits ; but it 
is found necessary, in order to produce the same agreeable 
effects, gradually to increase the quantity taken. Hence 
the great danger arising from its habitual use. 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 253 

The peculiar sedative principle of the opium is found in' 
a crystallized salt called morphine, which is extracted from 
the drug. The total amount of opium imported annually 
into the United States is about 150,000 pounds, valued at 
about 480,000 dollars. 

Senna ( Cas'sia Orien 'talis, Lin. S., x., 1 ; Nat. M., Ang. 
Exog., ord. Leguminous Plants), well known as a mild ca- 
thartic, is an annual plant, growing from three to five feet 
high, with pinnate leaves in five pairs, as shown on the 
Chart, and bright yellow flowers, succeeded by legumes or 
pods similar to those of the bean. This is the true senna, 
imported chiefly from Western Asia and Eastern Africa; 
but the senna of the shops consists of several species, all 
possessing similar qualities. 

The Cas'sia marilan' dica, a species found growing wild 
in this country, in dense masses in alluvial soils, and often 
cultivated in gardens, is also used as a cathartic. The up- 
per leaves and flowers are gathered for this purpose. This 
species is a perennial, and has the pinnate leaves generally 
in eight pairs ; flowers of five bright yellow petals ; legumes 
or pods curved ; and from twelve to twenty-seeded. 

Ipecac, as it is generally called, but, more properly, Ipe- 
cacuanha ( Cephae'lis ipecacuan' ha, Lin. S., v., 1 ; Nat. M., 
Ang. Exog., ord. Cinchonads), is a little, half-herbaceous, 
perennial plant, found in damp shady forests in Brazil. 
The root of this plant holds the first rank among emetics. 
It is also sudorific (producing perspiration) and expecto- 
rant. 

This plant has a weak creeping stem two or three feet 
long, from which it sends out roots, as seen on the Chart. 
The roots are contorted, from four to six inches long, and 
about as thick as a goose-quill. There are several varieties 
of this root, denominated, from their color, the white, gray, 
and brown, which are imported in bales from Rio Janeiro. 
The entire root is inodorous; but the powder, in which 
form it is used, has a faint disagreeable odor. The taste is 
bitter, and exceedingly nauseous. Helvetius, who first 
gave this root celebrity in France, in the time of Louis 



254 MANUAL OF INFOBMATIOJST 

XIV., received, as a reward from that monarch, a gift of 
five thousand dollars. 

Gentian ( Gen'tiana lu'tea, Lin. S., v., 2 ; Nat. M., Ang. 
Exog., ord. Gentianworts) is a plant which grows about 
four feet high, having broad ovate leaves, opposite and ses- 
sile, and a yellow axillary corolla, usually five-cleft, whorled, 
and rotate or wheel form. The thick root, which is of a 
yellowish-brown color, and very bitter taste, is a powerful 
tonic, and the principal European bitter used in medicine. 
In Switzerland and Germany this plant occupies extensive 
tracts of ground untouched by any cattle. The gentian 
brought to this country comes chiefly from Germany. A 
species of gentian having blue flowers is often used as a 
substitute for the yellow species. 

The gentians are a large order of beautiful plants, found 
in nearly all parts of the world, and many of them culti- 
vated in our gardens for ornament. They present a great 
variety of colors — red, blue, yellow, and white, with many 
of the intermediate compound tints. 

Peruvian Bark ( Cin'chona condamin'ea, Lin. S., vi., 1 ; 
Nat. M., Ang. Exog., ord. Cinchonads), much used in med- 
icine as a powerful febrifuge, is obtained from several spe- 
cies of plants, of the genus Cinchona, found in Peru. This 
genus derived its name from the Countess of Cinchon, who 
was cured of a fever by the use of this plant. The flowers 
of the kind most used in medicine are pink, and the seeds 
are contained in a long yellow capsule. Three kinds of the 
Peruvian bark, obtained from different species of Cinchona, 
are found in our drug-stores — the pale bark, the red, and 
the yellow. All are exceedingly bitter to the taste, and 
used for the same purposes. 

The medicinal properties of the Peruvian bark, and of 
most of the plants of the genus Cinchona, depend upon the 
presence of two alkalies, cinch onia and quinia. The latter, 
extracted from the bark, and popularly known as quinine, 
is much used in the treatment of agues. 

The Castor-oil Plant {JRi'cinus commu'nis, Lin. S.,xix., 
15 ; Nat. M., Ang. Exog., ord. Spurgeworts), though an an- 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 255 

nual and herbaceous plant in our gardens, becomes in warm- 
er climates a tree of several years' standing. In our gar- 
dens, Avhen started early in a hotbed, it makes a magnifi- 
cent border annual, often attaining a height of ten or 
twelve feet. 

The leaves of this plant, which are from four inches to a 
foot in diameter, and on long petioles, are peltate, palmate, 
and serrate, with lanceolate lobes ; flowers greenish-yellow ; 
lower stem has a frosty or mealy appearance, with branches 
of a light bluish-green color. The capsules (as represented 
at d on the Chart) containing the seeds Or beans are prickly. 

The castor-oil of commerce, noted as a mild and safe ca- 
thartic, is obtained from the seeds or beans, either by boil- 
ing them in water or by pressure ; but the latter method 
is the best. The oil is thick and heavy, nearly inodorous, 
insipid, and of a very pale straw-color. 

The castor-oil plant has been raised extensively in South- 
ern Illinois. It is planted in the spring, when there is no 
longer danger of frosts, much in the manner of Indian corn, 
with the exception that but one seed is put into each hill, 
and that at every fourth row a space is left sufficiently wide 
to admit of the passage of a team for the purpose of gath- 
ering the crop. The plant bears at the same time flowers 
and fruit, continuing to blossom, in our climate, as long as 
warm weather continues. The ripening commences in Au- 
gust, and the crop is gathered at intervals from this time 
until the plants are destroyed by frost. From sixteen to 
twenty-five bushels of the beans are obtained to the acre. 
The oil is manufactured extensively in St. Louis. During 
the fall of 1854 one establishment in St. Louis manufac- 
tured 32,000 gallons of castor-oil. The wholesale price of 
the oil has varied from sixty cents to $1 25 per gallon, 
sold in quantities by the barrel. Castor-oil would be very 
valuable for lubricating machinery if it could be produced 
at a sufficiently low price. 



256 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

VI. Plants used for Beverages. 

" Various artificial drinks," says Professor Johnston, in 
his Chemistry of Common Life, " are prepared, both in civ- 
ilized and semi-barbarous countries, and are in daily use 
among vast multitudes of men, such as tea, coffee, and co- 
coa, beer, wine, and ardent spirits, the preparation and ef- 
fects of each of which are connected with interesting chem- 
ical considerations. 

" These drinks agree in being all prepared from, or by 
means of, substances of vegetable origin, and in being gen- 
erally classed among the luxuries rather than the necessa- 
ries of life. The mode in which they are prepared, how- 
ever, naturally divides these drinks into two classes. Tea, 
coffee, and cocoa are roasted and prepared before they are 
infused in water, and the infusion is then drunk without 
farther chemical treatment. These are simply infused 
beverages. Beer, wine, and ardent spirits are prepared 
from infusions which, after being made, are subjected to 
important chemical operations. Among these operations 
is the process of fermentation, and hence they are properly 
distinguished as fermented liquors. The infused beverages 
are drunk hot ; fermented liquors are usually taken cold." 

Among the infused beverages, the teas, coffees, and cocoas 
are the most impox*tant. Teas are infusions of leaves ; cof- 
fees are infusions of seeds; while cocoas are, properly, 
soups or gruels, made by diffusing, through boiling water, 
the entire seeds of certain plants previously ground into a 
paste. 

The Tea Plant of China {The' a vir'idis, Lin. S., xii., 1 ; 
Nat. M., Ang. Exog., ord. Theads) is a hardy, evergreen, 
bushy shrub, from three to six feet high ; leaves numerous, 
lanceolate, serrate, flat, three times as long as broad, and 
on short and thick channeled footstalks ; blossom white, 
with yellow style and anthers. At c, on the Chart, is 
shown the pistil of the plant and one of the stamens; at o 
is the pistil farther advanced, with the seed-vessel at the 
bottom ; at d the seed-vessel or boll ; and at a the same 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 257 

fully ripe and opening. The leaves, -which are the valuable 
part of the plant, have been used as a beverage in China 
from very remote periods, and their consumption is now 
euormous. The total annual produce of the dried leaves 
in China alone is now estimated at more than a million of 
tons! Large quantities are also produced in Japan Corea, 
Assam, and Java. 

Although we have various kinds of black and green teas 
in the market, yet, botanically considered, the tea-plant is a 
single species ; the green and black, with all the diversities 
of each, being mere varieties, like the varieties of the grape, 
produced by difference of climate, soil, locality, age of the 
crop when gathered, and modes of preparation for the 
market. The tea-plants are raised from seeds, which are 
planted three or four in a hill, the hills being about four 
feet apart, and the same distance between the rows. A 
tea-plantation in China is said to look, at a little distance, 
like a shrubbery of gooseberry bushes. The leaves are not 
collected until the plants are three years old ; and after the 
plants have grown nine or ten years they are cut down, in 
order that a new plantation may then be made, or that 
young shoots from the old roots may spring up. The first 
gathering, in China, commences about the first of March, 
when the leaves just begin to unfold from the bud. These 
furnish the most costly of the " green" teas, and are said 
never to be exported, and to be used only by persons of 
the highest rank in China. A second gathering of the 
" green" teas, about a month later, furnishes those known 
as imperial and young hyson skin ; at later gatherings are 
obtained the hyson, hyson skin, and gunpowder teas ; and 
lastly, in June, the "black" teas, such as souchong and 
congo, until they reach the latest crop and lowest in qual- 
ity, called by us " bohea," and by the Chinese large tea, on 
account of the maturity and size of the leaves. 

The process of gathering the tea is one of great nicety 
and importance. Each leaf is plucked separately from the 
twig, mostly by women and children, and great care is 
taken to have the hands of the gatherer kept clean. In 



258 MANUAL OF INFORMATION" 

collecting some of the finer sorts that are used by the Chi- 
nese nobility only, it is stated, upon reliable authority, that 
the gatherer is obliged, for some weeks previous, to abstain 
from all gross food, lest his breath or perspiration might 
injure the flavor, to wear fine gloves while at work, and to 
bathe two or three times a day during this period. 

After the gathering of the tea, the operation of drying 
and rolling is performed, the object being to expel the 
moisture from the leaves, and, at the same time, to retain 
as much as possible of their aromatic flavor. For this pur- 
pose the leaves are thrown into shallow, heated roasting- 
pans, kept constantly in motion, and, when sufficiently 
moist and wilted, are placed upon a table, and rapidly roll- 
ed with the hands. After properly drying, the tea is win- 
nowed, and passed through sieves of different sizes, in or- 
der to get rid of the dust and other impurities, and to di- 
vide it into the different grades, which have their respect- 
ive names. By various processes of heating, rolling, etc., 
differences of flavor and color are produced. And yet it 
has been ascertained that the beautiful blue tinge which 
our finest teas possess is given by dyeing them with Prus- 
sian blue — a well-known poison ! The Chinese do not use 
such teas, but say that they color them in this manner be- 
cause they thus better suit the taste of the " foreign bar- 
barians !" 

(For a further account of tea, tea-drinking, etc., see Fifth 
Reader, page 155. It would be well for pupils to describe 
the process of making tea, the kinds with which they are 
acquainted, or which are kept in the stores, prices per 
pound, etc.) 

Effects. — Tea exhilarates, by acting on the nervous sys- 
tem, without sensibly intoxicating. Hence it excites the 
brain to increased activity, and produces wakefulness, and 
is therefore a popular beverage with those who are obliged 
to keep awake nights, and to persons who perform much 
mental labor. It also soothes and stills the vascular sys- 
tem (the system of the blood-vessels), and hence its uses 
in inflammatory diseases, and as a cure for the headache. 






FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 259 

Green tea, when taken strong, acts very powerfully upon 
some constitutions, producing nervous tremblings and other 
distressing symptoms, acting as a narcotic, and in inferior 
animals even producing paralysis. Black tea, made from 
more mature leaves than green tea, is the least injurious, 
because it does not contain so much of the volatile oil as 
the green varieties. 

The quantity of tea consumed in Great Britain annually 
is about seventy millions of pounds, or two and a half 
pounds to each individual; while the United States now 
consume about thirty-two millions of pounds annually, or 
but little more than a pound to each individual. The quan- 
tity consumed annually in the whole world is estimated at 
2240 millions of pounds, and it is said to be used by 500 
millions of mankind. 

The Coffee-tree ( Coffe'a Ara'bica, Lin. S., v., 1 ; Nat. 
M., Ang. Exog., ord. Cinchonads), a native of Ethiopia 
and Abyssinia, but first brought to notice from Arabia, is 
an evergreen from fifteen to twenty feet high; stem four 
or five inches in diameter, with a light-brown bark ; op- 
posite, oblong, wavy, shining, light-green leaves ; flowers 
white, in clusters at the base of the leaves, deeply five-cleft, 
with spreading divisions, and of a grateful odor, but of 
short duration. When the tree is full grown it much re- 
sembles one of our apple-trees, with the lower branches 
bent nearly to the ground. In almost all seasons of the 
year blossoms and green and ripe fruit may be seen on the 
tree at the same time. 

When the blossom falls off there remains in its room, or 
rather springs from each blossom, a small fruit, green at 
first, but which becomes red, or of a reddish-orange color, 
as it ripens, and is not unlike a large cherry, and is very 
good to eat. Under the flesh of this cherry, instead of the 
stone is found the bean or berry we call coffee, wrapped 
round in a fine thin skin. The berry is then very soft and 
of a disagreeable taste, but as the cherry ripens, the berry 
in the inside grows harder, and the dried up fruit, being 
the flesh or pulp of it, which was before eatable, becomes 



260 MANUAL OF LNFOKMATION 

a shell or pod of a deep brown color. The berry is now 
solid, and of a clear transparent green in some varieties, 
and a brownish or pale yellow in others. Each shell con- 
tains one berry, which splits into two equal parts. When 
the fruit is sufficiently ripe to be shaken from the tree, the 
husks are separated from the berries, and are used in Arabia 
by the natives instead of the berries, while the berries are 
.exported for the European markets. The leaves, when 
cured in the manner of tea, are said to possess all the vir- 
tues of the berry itself. The full-grown fruit, and one with 
the berry exposed, are represented on the Chart. 

In extensive coffee plantations the plants are put out 
about eight feet apart ; they are then topped and stunted 
to about five feet in height, for the convenience of having 
the fruit within reach of the gatherer. Thus dwarfed, they 
extend their branches until they cover the whole ground. 
They begin to yield fruit the third year ; by the fifth, sixth, 
or seventh, they are at full bearing, and continue to bear 
for upward of twenty years. The different kinds of coffee 
found in our markets — such as Java, Mocha or Arabian, 
La Guayra, Ceylon, etc. — are all of the same original kind, 
but changed somewhat in appearance and quality by differ- 
ences of soil, climate, and cultivation. 

Before the berry is available for use it undergoes a 
process called roasting ; and the valuable properties of the 
coffee depend very much on the manner in which this 
process is performed. It is said that, " If coffee be under- 
done in roasting, its virtues will not be imparted, and it 
will load and oppress the stomach ; if it be overdone, it 
will yield a flat, burnt, and bitter taste, its virtues will be 
destroyed, and in use it will heat the body and act as an 
astringent." 

The effects of coffee are thus described by Professor 
Johnston. " It exhilarates, arouses, and keeps awake ; it 
allays hunger to a certain extent, gives to the weary in- 
creased strength and vigor, and imparts a feeling of com- 
fort and repose. Its physiological effects upon the system, 
so far as they have been investigated, appear to be that, 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 261 

while it makes the brain more active, it soothes the body- 
generally, makes the change and waste of matter slower, 
and the demand for food in consequence less." It must be 
admitted, however, that a less favorable opinion of the ef- 
fects of coffee upon the system is given by many other 
writers. • 

Coffee is cultivated to a considerable extent in the West 
Indies, but very largely in Brazil. The entire annual pro- 
duction of coffee in the world is now estimated at six or 
seven hundred millions of pounds, and probably more than 
half of this quantity is raised in Brazil. One hundred mil- 
lions of mankind are believed to use it. It is estimated 
that more than two hundred and twenty millions of pounds 
are annually consumed in the United States alone, while 
only forty millions of pounds are consumed in Great Brit- 
ain. We are, therefore, as a people, the greatest coffee- 
drinkers in the world. 

(If Ave now number thirty millions of people, how much 
coffee, on an average, is annually consumed by each indi- 
vidual? Calling the price paid 14 cents per pound, what 
would the sum thus paid for coffee amount to ? What 
kinds of coffee are the pupils acquainted with? What 
kinds are found in the stores, and what are the prices per 
pound ?) 

The Paeagtjay Tea-plant, or Mate {I' lex Paraguay- 
en' sis, Lin. S., iv., 3 ; Nat. M., Ang. Exog., ord. Holly worts), 
is a shrub or small tree, from ten to fifteen feet high, grow- 
ing spontaneously in the forests of Paraguay. Flowers 
white, berries reddish-orange. The leaves, four or five 
inches long, when dried, and rubbed to powder, are exten- 
sively used throughout nearly all South America, for mak- 
ing a tea called mate. These leaves contain the same ac- 
tive ingredients as Chinese tea, and the beverage made 
from them produces similar effects ; but excessive use of it 
is attended with more dangerous consequences, as it is apt 
to induce diseases similar to those which follow the exces- 
sive use of ai-dent spirits — producing intoxication, and lead- 
ing even to delirium tremens. The quantity of the dried 



262 MANUAL OF INFOEMATIOJST 

leaves used in South America is very large, as five or six 
millions of pounds are annually exported from Paraguay. 
The entire consumption of this plant, annually, is believed 
to be about twenty millions of pounds. Ten millions of 
people in South America make it their common beverage. 

Mankind seem to have almost a natural taste for stimu- 
lating, intoxicating, and narcotic drinks ; as in all coun- 
tries, civilized and savage, drinks of some of these kinds 
are common. 

The Cocoa-tree (Theobro'ma caca'o, Lin. S., xii., 1 ; 
Nat. M., Ang. Exog., ord. Byttner'iads), or Chocolate-tree, 
is the tree that produces the seeds from which the well- 
known beverage called coco'a, or chocolate, is produced. 
This tree, which is from twelve to sixteen feet high, grows 
spontaneously in Mexico and Central America, and forms 
whole forests in Demarara. 15 general appearance it re- 
sembles, both in size and shape, a black-heart cherry. The 
leaves are lanceolate-oblong, bright green, entire; flower 
small, reddish, inodorous ; and the fruit, which, like the fig, 
grows directly from the stem and principal branches, is of 
the form and size of a small oblong melon or thick cucum- 
ber, and about three inches in diameter at the thickest 
part. This fruit is smooth, yellow, red, or of both colors 
externally, having a yellowish fleshy rind, near half an inch 
in thickness ; within this rind is a whitish or cream-colored 
spongy pulp, and imbedded in this latter are from six to 
thirty beans or seeds, of the size of large almonds. At d 
on the Chart is represented one of the fruits, with a part 
of the rind removed, and showing the beans or seeds in 
rows. These seeds are of a flesh-color when fresh, but 
they become of a dark brown, both externally and inter- 
nally, when fully ripe and dry. They taste like a rich nut, 
but are slightly astringent, and decidedly bitter before be- 
ing roasted. The cocoa-tree begins to bear in its third 
year, producing, after this period, leaves, flowers, and fruit, 
all the year through. A tree yields from two to three 
pounds of seeds annually. 

The seeds or beans are usually roasted like coffee, then 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 263 

ground or pounded, and mixed with water, so as to form a • 
thick paste ; sugar, vanilla, and sometimes cinnamon and 
cloves, and some other ingredients, are then added, with, 
usually, the reddish-yellow vegetable dye anotta to color 
it ; and when the paste thus formed has become hardened 
into cakes, it forms the chocolate of the shops. What is 
properly cocoa is the pure cocoa mixed with water, and 
hardened in cakes, but without the additional ingredients 
generally used in chocolate. The purest cocoa is obtained 
by removing the shell of the bean, and using the interior 
portions only. 

Cocoa or chocolate is used in different ways. Some- 
times the cake is eaten in a solid state, as a nutritious arti- 
cle of diet ; sometimes it is scraped into powder, and mixed 
with "boiling water or boiling milk, when it makes a bev- 
erage somewhat thick, but agreeable to the palate ; and 
sometimes the unmixed and pure cocoa is boiled in water, 
with which it forms a dark brown decoction. With sugar 
and milk this makes an agreeable drink, better than the 
ordinary chocolate for persons of weak constitutions. 

Cocoa is said to produce exhilarating and soothing ef- 
fects, like tea and coffee, and, like them, to diminish the or- 
dinary waste of the system. But it is remarkably distin- 
guished from tea and coffee by containing a large propor- 
tion of oily matter, known as cocoa-butter, which amounts 
to more than half the weight of the shelled or husked 
bean. Hence it is a very rich article of food ; and for 
this reason it not unfrequently disagrees with delicate 
stomachs. It also contains a considerable proportion of 
starch and gluten — substances which form the leading con- 
stituents of all the more valuable varieties of vegetable 
food. The botanist Linnaeus was so fond of cocoa that he 
gave to the tree the generic name of Theobroma, a com- 
pound Greek word which means " food of the gods." 

The total annual consumption of cocoa is estimated at 
one hundred millions of pounds ; and it is believed to be 
in general use as a beverage among fifty millions of man- 
kind. 



264 MANUAL OF INFOBMATION 

Chiccory ( Cicho'rium inty'bus, Lin. S., xvii., 1 ; Nat. M., 
Ang.Exog., ord. Composite plants), also called Succory and 
Endive, is a wild weed found growing abundantly in most 
countries of Europe, where it is also often cultivated. It 
has been introduced into this country, and is cultivated in 
Westchester County, near New York, and in some other 
places. In a wild state the stem, which is round and 
rough, grows from one to three feet high ; but when culti- 
vated, it shoots up five or six feet : flowers sessile, bright 
blue, large and showy, with the corollas flat and five-tooth- 
ed ; the upper leaves cordate and acuminate ; but the lower 
ones have that peculiar form called runcinate, as shown on 
the Chart. A runcinate leaf is one that is pinnatifid (see 
page 181), and that has the segments pointed and curved 
backward. The root of this plant, which is large, white, 
or brownish, parsnip-shaped, and which increases in size 
when the plant is subjected to cultivation, abounds in a 
bitter juice, which has led to its use as a substitute for 
coffee ; and for this purpose the plant is extensively culti- 
vated in Prussia, Belgium, and France. The root is taken 
up before the plant shoots into flower, is washed, sliced, and 
dried ; a little lard is then put in, and the root is roasted 
until it is of a chocolate color, after which it is ground, and 
packed in papers for use. When steeped in hot water it 
imparts to the water a dark color, and a sweetish-bitter 
taste ; but it has not the pleasant odor and flavor of genu- 
ine coffee. To many it is not only disagreeable to the 
taste, but nauseous in a high degree ; yet others become 
very fond of it, and it is probable that its bitter principle 
possesses a tonic or strengthening property. It is said, 
however, that " prolonged and frequent use of it produces 
heartburn, cramp, and acidity, in the stomach, loss of appe- 
tite, weakness of the limbs, tremblings, sleeplessness, a 
drunken cloudiness of the senses, etc., etc." 

Chiccory is used very largely to adulterate ground coffee, 
as it is found that a little of the roasted chiccory gives as 
dark a color to water, and as bitter a taste, as a great deal 
of coffee. As evidence of the extent to which it is used, 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 265 

English statistics show that, in the year 1845, 2000 tons of 
chiccory were imported into Great Britain alone from the 
Continent, and it is known that since that period its use 
has greatly increased. The presence of chiccory in ground 
coffee may be detected by putting the coffee into cold wa- 
ter, as chiccory will impart a brownish-yellow color to the 
water, which pure coffee doe3 not. Those who would guard 
against such imposition should buy the coffee in the kernel, 
and grind it themselves. 

The Hop {Hu'mulus lu'pxdus, Lin. S., xx., 5 ; Nat. M., 
Ang. Exog., ord. Sempioorts) is a perennial plant, with an 
annual stem, rough, and twining with the sun, found wild 
in hedges, and extensively cultivated both in Europe and 
in this country for its flowers or scaly aments, which are 
used in the manufacture of beer. This plant, like all oth- 
ers of the twentieth Linnzean class, bears its pistillate and 
staminate flowers on different individuals ; and it is the fe- 
male or pistillate plant, therefore, containing the seeds or 
fruit, that is chiefly cultivated. The leaves are very rough, 
generally three-lobed, deeply cordate at the base, and on 
long petioles. For the shape* of the flowers of both kinds, 
see the Chart. The scales of the fertile flower, when ar- 
rived at maturity, are covered with yellowish resinous at- 
oms, forming a fine powder, which is distinguished by the 
name of lupulin. It is this powder chiefly which contains 
the bitter, tonic, narcotic, and aromatic properties which 
render the plant valuable. A tea made of hop flowers is 
not only tonic, but it soothes also and tranquillizes, allays 
pain, reduces the pulse, and in a slight degree induces sleep. 
The chief use of the hop in brewing is to prevent the beer 
from becoming sour, and this it does by checking the fer- 
mentation before all the sugar becomes converted into al- 
cohol. It also imparts to the beer its own peculiar narcotic 
and tonic properties. 

Between fifty and sixty thousand acres are devoted to 
the raising of hops in England alone ; and the people of 
Great Britain consume about forty millions of pounds of 
hops annually. England consumes more hops than all the 

M 



266 MANUAL OF INFOEMATION 

world besides ; and it is therefore very evident that the En- 
glish people are the greatest beer-drinkers in the world. 

From two to three millions of pounds of hops are now 
raised annually in this country — two thirds of this quantity 
being produced in the State of New York. In the year 1850 
the breweries of this state produced 645,000 barrels of ale. 

Numerous bitter plants have been recommended and oc- 
casionally used in beer, to replace or supplant the hop — 
such as horehound, wormwood, gentian, quassia, chamo- 
mile, fern leaves, broom tops, ground-ivy, dandelion, chic- 
cory, and even that most deadly of poisons, strychnine. 
Strychnine is an intensely bitter substance contained in the 
seeds of the nux vomica, a tree growing in various places 
in the East Indies, and producing a fruit similar to the ap- 
ple. Loudon, speaking of the seeds of the nux vomica, 
says, "They are employed in the distillation of country 
spirits, to render them more intoxicating." The introduc- 
tion of these seeds in English breweries is prohibited un- 
der heavy penalties; but it is believed that they are used, 
nevertheless. Strychnine is so intensely bitter that its taste 
can be detected when dissolved in 600,000 times its weight 
of water. Beer, wine, and brandy drinkers little know the 
many poisons which are smuggled into their systems under 
the guise of " beverages." 

VII. Plants used for Manufactures. 

Herbaceous Cotton ( Gossyp'ium herba'ceum, Lin. S., 
xv., 13 ; Nat. M., Ang. Exog., ord. Mattowworts), the kind 
mostly cultivated in the United States, is an annual, which 
grows from two to five feet high, with dark green, blue- 
veined leaves on long petioles, the lower leaves being five- 
lobed, and the upper often but three. The flower is hand- 
some, about three inches broad, of a pale yellow color, 
with one pistil, and five petals, which are purplish at the 
base. On the falling of the flower, a pod of triangular 
shape, about the size of a small walnut, is developed. This 
pod or capsule enlarges, and in course of ripening bursts, 
disclosing a snow-white or yellowish ball of down in three 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 267 

locks, inclosing and tightly adhering to the seeds, which 
resemble those of the grape, though of several times the 
size. The cotton is, therefore*, this vegetable down, which 
consists of beautifully fine fibres, of exquisite softness. The 
cotton fibre, however, when examined by the microscope, 
is found to have two sharp sides, to which are ascribed the 
irritation and inflammation of wounds and ulcers when 
dressed with cotton instead of lint. 

Some ten species of cotton are enumerated by botanists ; 
but of these there are only three really different kinds — 
the herbaceous, shrub-cotton, and tree-cotton. Varieties 
of these three are numerous. Thus an important variety 
of the herbaceous is the exquisitely fine, long, and strong- 
stapled sea-island cotton, which is produced only on the 
low sandy islands along the coast of South Carolina and 
Georgia. 

The cotton-seed is planted in the spring — in the Caro- 
linas and Georgia about the beginning of April — in rows 
five or six feet apart, the distance between the holes in 
which the seeds are deposited being about eighteen inches. 
Much care in weeding, thinning, and pruning is required 
during the process of culture. A field of cotton at the 
gathering, when the globes of snowy wool are seen among 
the glossy dark leaves, is singularly beautiful. The cotton- 
bolls begin to open about the middle of July, and continue 
opening until the appearance of frost, from the middle to 
the end of October. The picking is done by hand ; after 
which the cotton is passed through a cotton-gin machine to 
free it from the seeds. It is then packed in large bales or 
tyags for the market, by the aid, generally, of cotton press- 
es. The weight of the bale, however, is by no means uni- 
form, varying in different countries, and in different sec- 
tions of the same country, at different periods, and accord- 
ing to the different kinds or qualities of the article. In the 
year 1855 a reliable publication gave the average of the 
Virginia, Carolina, Georgia, and West India bale at from 
300 to 310 pounds ; that of New Orleans and Alabama at 
from 400 to 500 pounds ; Brazilian at from 160 to 200 
pounds; and Egyptian at from 180 to 280 pounds. 



268 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

The value of the annual cotton crop in the United States 
is about 150 millions of dollars; and, indeed, the main de- 
pendence of the world has hitherto been on this country, 
which, in the year 1857, furnished 3,500,000 bales out of 
a total product of 4,200,000. The price of American cot- 
ton per pound during the ten years ending with 1855, av- 
eraged a fraction over nine cents, the highest average for 
any one entire year being 12.11, and the lowest 6.4. 

The manufacture of cloth from cotton had its origin, at 
a very early period, in Southern and Western Asia, where 
the cotton-plant is indigenous, and where the climate ren- 
ders a light and absorbent fabric a suitable clothing for the 
people. Throughout the southern half of Asia and por- 
tions of Africa the clothing of the people is almost exclu- 
sively of cotton. The cotton manufacture of China is of 
immense amount, but it is carried on almost entirely for 
home consumption. It is only about three hundred years 
since the manufacture of cotton was first attempted in Eu- 
rope, and then it was chiefly by tedious hand-labor ; but 
in place of the one-thread wheel then used for spinning, 
and each requiring the labor of one person, we now some- 
times see seventy or a hundred thousand spindles whirling 
away in one building, the whole driven by machinery, and 
requiring the attention of perhaps not a dozen persons. 

The names given to the various kinds of cotton-goods 
are almost innumerable. The following may be given as 
some of the principal groupings. 1st. Ginghams, which 
consist of stout cotton, in which threads of two or more 
colors are woven together into stripes ; 2d. Fustians, bea- 
verteens, velveteens, moleskins, etc., which are woven on the 
same principle as velvet, with a nap or pile, which is either 
cut or left uncut ; 3d. Damasks, huckabacks, diapers, ticks, 
and cambrics, which are cotton imitations of the similarly- 
named flaxen goods ; 4th. Quilts and counterpanes, which 
have downy tufts to increase the thickness and softness ; 
5th. Shirting, sheeting, and printing calicoes, etc., which 
are varieties of plain, serviceable cotton goods, varying in 
stoutness ; 6th. Chintz, which is a stout calico, afterward 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 269 

printed in several colors; 7th. Corduroys, jeans, quiltings, 
etc., which are very strong cotton goods, mostly twilled ; 
8th. Muslins, of which there are almost innumerable varie- 
ties, such as book-muslins, jaconet, bishop lawn, tarlatan, 
Scotch lawn, Victoria, India and Swiss, leno, striped, lap- 
pet, sprig-muslins, etc., etc., etc. 

The foregoing will, we trust, give some little idea, at 
least, of the vast importance to mankind of the famous Cot- 
ton Plant, which we have represented on the Chart. 

The Hemp ( Can'nabis sati'va, Lin. S., xx., 5 ; Nat. M., 
Aug. Exog., order ITempicorts) is an annual plant, growing 
ordinarily from six to eight feet high, springing up spon- 
taneously in hedges and waste grounds ; stem pilose (with 
erect thin hairs) ; leaves palmate, lower ones from five to 
seven-leafed, with the leaflets lanceolate, serrate, from three 
to five inches long, and one fifth as wide, the middle one 
the largest ; flowers small, green, solitary, and axillary in 
the staminate plants, but in spikes in the pistillate plants. 
(The male and female flowers in the 20th class are always 
on different plants.) 

The hemp plant is extensively cultivated in Central Asia, 
in many countries of Europe, particularly Russia and Po- 
land, and in different parts of North America, for its fib- 
rous covering or bark, which is used in the manufacture 
of coarse and stout cloths, canvas, cordage, etc. It is said 
that more than 180,000 pounds of rough hemp are used 
in the cordage of a first-rate man-of-war, including rigging 
and sails. In the year 1850 35,000 tons of hemp were 
raised in the United States — the larger portion in Ken- 
tucky and Missouri.* 

But the common hemp has also been used among East- 

* What is called Manilla, or Manilla hemp, from which the stoutest 
of cordage is made, consists of the fibre of a species of wild banana, 
which grows in vast abundance in the Philippines and Spice Islands. 

What is known as gunny cloth, or gunny bags — the bags or sacks in 
which nearly all the rice, paddy, wheat, sugar, pepper, coffee, etc., are 
exported from the East Indies — is made of the fibre of two plants which 
are extensively cultivated in Bengal. It is often called Indian hemp, 
but is a plant totally different from the common hemp. 



270 MANUAL OF INFOEMATION" 

era nations, almost from time immemorial, as a beverage, 
for its narcotic virtues. Its narcotic properties reside in 
a resinous substance which is contained in the sap. In cold 
countries very little of this resinous substance is found in 
the plant ; but in warm countries it is so abundant as to 
exude naturally from the flowers, twigs, and young leaves. 
What is also singular, the fibre of the plant is worthless in 
warm climates. Among the Turks and Arabs, and gen- 
erally throughout Syria and Egypt, the preparations of 
hemp in common use are known by the name of hashish, 
and it is prepared in various forms for smoking, chewing, 
and drinking. When taken in moderation this narcotic 
produces increase of appetite and great mental cheerful- 
ness ; but in excess it causes a peculiar kind of delirium 
and catalepsy — the latter being a kind of spasmodic dis^ 
ease, in which there is a sudden suspension of the action. 
of the senses and of volition, while the heart continues to 
pulsate. A physician in India has given the following ac- 
count of one of his experiments with an Indian patient : 

" At two P.M. a grain of the resin of hemp was given 
to a rheumatic patient ; at four P.M. he was very talkative, 
sang, called loudly for an extra supply of food, and declared 
himself in perfect health. At six P.M. he was asleep. At 
eight P.M. he was found insensible, but breathing with 
perfect regularity. His pulse and skin were natural, and 
the pupils freely contracted on the approach of light. Hap- 
pening by chance to lift up the patient's arm, the profes- 
sional reader will judge of my astonishment when I found 
it remained in the posture in which I placed it. It required 
but a very brief examination of the limbs to find that, by 
the influence of this narcotic, the patient had been thrown 
into the strangest and most extraordinary of all nervous 
conditions, which so few have seen, and the existence of 
which so many still discredit — the genuine catalepsy of the 
nosologist. We raised him to a sitting posture, and placed 
his arms and limbs in every imaginable attitude. A waxen 
figure could not be more pliant or more stationary in each 
position, no matter how contrary to the natural influence 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 271 

of gravity ! To all impressions he was, meanwhile, almost 
insensible." After a time, as it appears, the effects of the 
narcotio passed off entirely, leaving the patient apparently 
uninjured. 

Common Flax (Zi'num usitatis' simum, Lin. S., v., 5 ; 
Nat. M., Ang. Exog., ord. Flaxworts) is an important plant, 
that has been cultivated from the earliest ages in some 
European countries ; its bark of strong fibres being manu- 
factured, and its seed crushed for oil. Flax is an annual, 
and was introduced into this country from England. It 
has a stem from one to two feet high, branching above ; 
leaves alternate, three-veined, linear -lanceolate, and acute ; 
flowers blue, having the sepals of the calyx, the petals, the 
stamens, and generally the styles, five in number. 

The flax is gathered by pulling it up by the roots when 
the seeds (contained in round bolls about the size of a pea) 
are ripe ; the seeds are next thrashed out, after which the 
fibrous is separated from the woody portion, sometimes by 
spreading the plants upon the grass and leaving them there 
until the woody portions become rotten, when they are 
broken up and removed by an instrument called a brake, 
and sometimes by steeping the stems in hot water, and 
then applying the brake. The long unbroken fibres are 
next thoroughly hatcheled, to remove the coarse portions 
of the fibre called the tow, after which the flax is ready for 
spinning, preparatory to its being woven into cloth. The 
cloth is called linen, from the Celtic word llin, a thread, 
the Greek word linon, and the Latin linum. Hence the 
oil from the seed is called Unseed oil — an oil used extens- 
ively in mixing paints, printer's ink, etc. 

Flax is largely manufactured into cloth in England, more 
than a million hundred weight of it being imported into 
England annually to be made into cloth in English facto- 
ries. In the year 1850, 562,000 bushels of flax-seed were 
raised in the United States, and nearly 8,000,000 pounds 
of flax. Yet this only partially supplies the demand, for 
we annually import linen thread and linen cloth to the 
amount of six or eight millions of dollars. 



272 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

The White Mttlbeeey (Mb'rus al'ba, Lin. S., .^ix., 4 ; 
Nat. M., Ang. Exog., ord. Morads), noted as being the tree 
on whose leaves the silk-worm best likes to feed, is usually 
cultivated wherever the silk-worm is reared. It is a tree, 
sometimes growing to a height of thirty or forty feet, with 
a trunk from ten to twenty inches in diameter, although 
when cultivated it is usually kept down as a shrub, for the 
greater convenience of gathering the leaves. It is readily 
distinguished from the black mulberry, even in winter, by 
its more numerous, slender, upright-growing, and white- 
barked shoots. The leaves are from two to four inches 
long, acute, generally cordate and entire, but sometimes 
lobed, and always deeply serrated. The flowers, which put 
forth in May, are green, in small roundish spikes or heads, 
and are succeeded by an abundance of white fruit when the 
tree is in its native state ; but cultivation has produced nu- 
merous varieties in the color of the fruit, such as ash-col- 
ored, purple, and even black. The variety called multicau- 
Us is black-fruited; so that we have, literally, a "white 
mulberry" that is black. 

The leaves of the mulberry abound in a milky juice, 
which is found to possess more or less of the properties of 
caoutchouc or India-rubber, according to the climate in 
which the tree is grown. It is doubtless owing to this 
property in the leaves of the mulberry that the threads of 
the silk-worm have more tenacity of fibre than those of any 
other insect that feeds on the leaves of trees. The leaves 
gathered from trees growing on a poor and dry soil, and 
in warm climates, are better for the silk-worms, and pro- 
duce better silk, than those from a rich soil and cold cli- 
mate. 

The eggs from which the silk-worm is hatched are of a 
yellowish color (see Chart), about the size of a small pin- 
head. They are laid by a kind of grayish-colored moth 
(see Chart), which most persons would doubtless call a but- 
terfly. These eggs are hatched at the season of the year 
when the mulberry begins to put forth its leaves ; and the 
young are at first small black worms, about the size of a 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 273 

smal^mt. Feeding on the tender mulberry leaves, the 
silk-wrm grows rapidly, and comes to maturity in about 
four weeks. When from two to three inches long it is of 
a milky or pearl color, or blackish ; these latter are esteem- 
ed the best. Its body is divided into seven rings, to each 
of which are joined two very short feet. One of these silk- 
worms, of the natural size, is represented on the Chart as 
feeding on a mulberry leaf. When arrived at maturity, 
the silk- worm stops eating ; it begins to diminish in length, 
and to increase in thickness, and soon proceeds to inclose 
itself in an oval-shaped yellowish ball or cocoon, which is 
formed of an exceedingly slender and long thread of fine 
yellow silk. This silky cocoon is the silk-worm's shroud, 
which it proceeds to put on preparatory to its burial. The 
silk is formed in the stomach in two little masses, and is 
spun from a small point, like a little thorn, near the extrem- 
ity of its body. 

By the time the cocoon is finished, the silk-worm has be- 
come transformed into an oblong roundish ball, and it then 
appears to be perfectly dead. This is called its chrysalis 
or pupa state. Three of these chrysali are represented on 
the Chart, of the natural size. Many animals may often 
be seen in this state, and somewhat resembling a bean, ad- 
hering to old boards, the outsides of houses, etc. The 
worm remains in its chrysalis state, shut up in the cocoon, 
several days, perfectly motionless, and seemingly dead; 
after which the cocoon bursts, like an egg hatching, and 
what was the silk-worm comes forth a dull-looking moth, 
with wings, such as we first described ; but these wings it 
never uses for flying, and it only crawls slowly about in the 
place where it was hatched. In this, the last stage of its 
existence, the insect tastes no food, but in a few days the 
female lays from 300 to 500 eggs, and then dies. And this 
completes its " strange eventful history." 

In order to preserve the silk, the moth is killed in the 
cocoon, and not allowed to come forth, otherwise the 
threads of silk would be broken. What is called raw silk 
is produced by winding off, at the same time, on a com- 

M 2 



274 MANUAL OF INFOKMATION 

mon reel, the threads of several of the balls or capons. 
Without the mulberry for the silk-worm to feed upon, no 
silk of any value would be produced. 

The silk-worm is reared very extensively in China, from 
which country there are annually exported to England 
alone from two to four millions of pounds of silk. The 
worms are also reared throughout the British East Indies, 
Turkey, Greece, Sardinia, Italy, France, etc. ; and some at- 
tention has been paid to the silk culture in the United 
States. The total value of the annual production of silk in 
the world is estimated at two hundred millions of dollars! 
Surely the little worm that creates all this value is not to 
be despised ; and it is very plain that the tree on which it 
feeds is, next to the worm itself, an article of vast import- 
ance to mankind. How many of the " gay belles of fash- 
ion" ever reflect, as they exult in their silken finery, that 
they are decked in the shroud which a worm wove for its 
own burial ! 

VIII. Miscellaneous. 

Tobacco {Nicotia'na taba'cum, Lin. S., v., 1 ; Nat. M., 
Ang. Exog., ord. Nightshades) is a plant found growing 
wild in North America, but which succeeds well, and is 
extensively cultivated in most parts of the Old World. It 
belongs to the order of Nightshades, in which are found 
those virulent medicinal poisons, nightshade or belladonna, 
henbane, and stramonium. 

Tobacco is an annual plant, growing from four to six 
feet high, with stem and branches viscid or glutinous, and 
downy ; leaves from one to two feet long, lanceolate, ses- 
sile, and decurrent or partially clasping ; corolla pink, fun- 
nel-shaped, having the mouth inflated, and five-iobed ; and 
it has five stamens and one pistil. 

The fresh leaves of tobacco possess very little odor or 
taste ; but when dried their odor is strong, narcotic, and 
somewhat fetid ; their taste bitter, and extremely acrid. 
When well cured, they are of a yellowish-green color. 
When distilled, they yield an oil, on which their virtue de- 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 275 

pends^and which is a virulent poison. The leaves are used 
in various ways, being chewed, smoked, and ground and 
manufactured into snuff.* 

According to the census returns for the year 1850, the 
whole number of acres devoted to the cultivation of to- 
bacco in the United States was four hundred thousand / 
product, at six hundred pounds to the acre, 240 million 
pounds; estimated value, fourteen millions of dollars; num- 
ber of tobacconists and cigar-makers in the United States, 
10,823. Virginia is the greatest tobacco-growing state, 
next to which is Missouri. 

British writers state that about twenty-six thousand tons 
of tobacco are annually consumed in Great Britain and Ire- 
land, and that more than half of this quantity is smuggled 
into the country, on account of the excessive duties (up- 
ward of 1000 per cent.) levied on the article. These du- 
ties amounted, during the year ending January 5th, 1853, 
to nearly twenty-three millions of dollars. The revenue 
which the French government derived from the tobacco 
imported into France during the first nine months of the 
year 1857 amounted to more than twenty-five millions of 
dollars ! The United States supplies about two fifths of all 
the tobacco consumed in Europe. 

It is said that tobacco is, next to salt, probably the arti- 
cle most universally consumed by man. In one form or 
other, but most generally in the form of fume or smoke, 
there is no climate in which it is not consumed, and no na- 
tionality that has not adopted it. • To put down its use 
has equally baffled legislators and moralists ; and, in the 
words of Pope on a higher subject, it may be said to be 
])artaken of " by saint, by savage, and by sage." A Ger- 
man writer has preserved the titles of a hundred volumes 

* The late Col. Stone, editor of the Commercial Advertiser of New 
York city, in one of his lectures against the use of tobacco, describes a 
sign which was placed upon a store occupied by three brothers, dealers 
in tobacco. It read as follows : 

" We three, brothers be, in the same cause ; 
Jim snuffs, Jo puffs, and I chaws." 



276 MANUAL OF INFOEMATIOISr 

which have been written against the use of tobacco. 
Among th^se books is that of James Stuart, King of En- 
gland, who describes the smoking of tobacco as " a cus- 
tom loathsome to the eye, hateful to the nose, harmful to 
the brain, dangerous to the lungs, and in the black stink- 
ing fume thereof nearest resembling the horrible Stygian 
smoke of the pit that is bottomless." 

Medical writers have generally condemned the use of 
tobacco in the strongest language ; and, as Professor John- 
ston says, "It is remarkable how very few persons can 
state distinctly why they began, and for what reason they 
continue the indulgence." The botanist Lindley thus de- 
scribes the properties and effects of tobacco: "It is a pow- 
erful stimulant narcotic, employed medicinally as a seda- 
tive, and in vapor to bring on nausea and fainting. "When 
chewed, it appears to impair the appetite, and induce tor- 
por of the gastric nerves. Although, if smoked in mod- 
erate quantities, it acts as a harmless excitant and sedative, 
yet it is a frequent cause of paralysis when the practice is 
indulged in to excess. Oil of tobacco, which is inhaled and 
swallowed in the process of smoking, is one of the most 
violent of known poisons. The Hottentots are said to kill 
snakes by putting a drop of it on their tongues ; and the 
death of these reptiles is said to take place as instantane- 
ously as if by an electric shock." 

There is very little doubt, when we consider the enor- 
mous extent to which tobacco is used throughout the 
world, that it actually produces more disease, suffering, 
and death than ardent spirits themselves. Such is the tes- 
timony of eminent medical men and physiologists. 

Coc'cuLus In'dictjs (Anamir'ta cer'rulus, or Menisper'- 
mum cer'rulus, Lin. S., xx., 10 ; Ang. Exog., ord. Menisper- 
mads) is a twining East Indian plant, a narcotic poison, 
with large, orbicular, and sub-cordate leaves ; flowers green 
and yellow, producing clusters of berries like grapes, but 
smaller, first white, then red, and finally blackish-purple. 
In the East Indies these berries are made up into a paste, 
and used to intoxicate fish, birds, and different sorts of 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 277 

vermin ; but in civilized countries they are largely used to 
adulterate ale and beer, and to poison and intoxicate men 
and women. Professor Johnston says : " The bruised seeds 
of this plant impart to beer an intensely bitter taste, and 
can thus be substituted cheaply for about one third of the 
usual quantity of hops, without materially affecting the 
flavor of the beer. They give a fullness and richness in 
the mouth, and a darkness to weak and inferior liquors. 
In these respects a pound of Cocctilus indicus is said to be 
equivalent to four bushels of malt ; hence disreputable 
brewers are tempted to use it largely." The English gov- 
ernment has imposed a heavy penalty upon brewers who 
use it, and upon druggists who sell it to them ; but yet an 
extract from this poison, called Pereira, is extensively em- 
ployed in the breweries of England, and probably in those 
of this country ; and writers on brewing give plain direc- 
tions for using the drug. Such facts should be a caution 
to ale and beer drinkers. 

Vanilla ( Vanilla aromat'ica, and also Vanilla plani- 
folia, Lin. S., xviii., 1 ; Nat. M., Agl. End., ord. Orchids), 
which furnishes one of the most delightful of aromatics 
known, is a species of vine, extensively cultivated in Mex- 
ico, and in some countries of South America. It rises to 
the height of eighteen or twenty feet, shoots out roots at 
every joint, like the ivy, by which it clings to the bark of 
trees ; its leaves are ovate-oblong ; flowers of a greenish- 
yellow color, surrounded by the long and wavy sepals of 
the calyx ; fruit a pulpy pod, eight or ten inches long and 
scarce an inch broad, of a yellow color when gathered, but 
changing to a dark brown or black. This fruit is wrinkled 
on the outside, and full of a vast number of seeds, like 
grains of sand, having a peculiar and delicious fragrance. 
Not only these seeds, but the pods also, when properly 
prepared, are used in the manufacture of chocolate, and in 
various drinks, ice-creams, candies, etc., etc., to give them 
an agreeable flavor. The pod, when ripe, is said to yield 
from two to six drops of a liquid, which has an exquisite 
odor, and which is known as balsam of vanilla. This bal- 



278 MANUAL OF INFORMATION" 

sam, however, is seldom seen. The dried pods constitute 
most of the vanilla of commerce. The amount of vanilla 
imported into and consumed in this country is believed to 
exceed 5000 pounds per annum, valued at from $20 to f 30 
a pound. 

The Varnish-tree {Melanorrhce' a usita'ta, Lin. S., xx., 
1 ; Nat. M., Ang. Exog., ord. Anacards or Terebinths) is 
introduced on the Chart as the representative of a class of 
trees and shrubs having a resinous, gummy, caustic, or 
milky juice, often poisonous, and 'from some of which an 
excellent varnish is obtained, much used by Eastern na- 
tions. Among these varnish-trees are the Cashew-nut, the 
Marking Nut-tree, the Semecarpus, the tree from which the 
Japan lacquer is obtained, several trees which produce the 
copal varnish, and the one we have represented on the 
Chart, called, by way of distinction, the Varnish-tree. This 
is a large tf ee, a native of Hindostan, China, etc., having 
blunt, obovate leaves, in whorls of six, and deep red flow- 
ers. The varnish-drug is the sap of the tree, and it is used 
extensively for painting river craft, and for varnishing ves- 
sels destined to contain liquids. Among some of the East- 
ern nations, every article of household furniture destined to 
contain solid or liquid food is lacquered over with it. The 
drug is also used as a glue-sizing in the process of gilding ; 
the Burmans use great quantities of it in gilding their 
idols, and also for their religious writing upon ivory, palm- 
leaves, and metals. 

Fish-poison (Tephro'sia toxica' ria, Lin. S., xvi., 4 ; Nat. 
M., Ang. Exod., ord. Leguminous plants) is introduced on 
the Chart as the representative of quite a number of plants 
which are used, in different countries, for stupefying fish. 
The plant here represented is nearly allied to the Indigo 
plant, and is cultivated in some of the "West India islands. 
It is also found growing wild in South America. It is 
about three feet high, with oblong-lanceolate, blunt, and 
ash-colored leaves ; purple flowers, in a long terminal ra- 
ceme ; pods long, round, and spreading from the stalk. 
The leaves, branches, and pods, well pounded, and thrown 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 279 

into a river or pond, very soon affect the water and intox- 
icate the fish, so as to cause them to float on the water as 
if dead. Most of the large fish recover after a short time, 
but nearly all the small ones perish. 

The Cocculus indicus is used for the same purpose, also 
the Brazilian Phyllanthus, Angostura and Cinchona bark, 
the Chaubnoogra of the Hindoos, the evergreen Took or 
Hydrocarpus, and many other plants. 

IX. Plants used for Coloring. 

The Indigo Plant {Indigo' f era tincto'ria, Lin. S., xvi., 
4 ; Nat. M., Ang. Exog., ord. Leguminous plants) is exten- 
sively cultivated in the East Indies for the drug which 
yields the beautiful blue dye known by the name of indi- 
go. It has a woody stem, from three to six feet high ; 
leaves pinnate and oblong ; flowers purple, and papilio- 
naceous or butterfly-shaped ; the fruit a long, round, curv- 
ing pod, containing the seeds or beans. 

The indigo is obtained by cutting the plant before it 
comes into flower, and thoroughly steeping it in water un- 
til it has parted with its coloring matter, which, when 
drained off, is found to be a thick substance; and this 
dries, and becomes hard on exposure to the air. It is an 
article in very general use, and is found in most country 
stores. 

A species of the indigo plant is also cultivated in Cen- 
tral America and Venezuela ; and it may be raised without 
difficulty in the southern United States. The consumption 
of indigo in England amounts to about two million pounds 
per year, most of it obtained from the East Indies. The 
United States use about three quarters of that amount. 
The ordinary kinds may be bought for about 75 cents per 
pound, but the best indigo is usually worth two dollars per 
pound. 

Before indigo came into use in Europe, the blue coloring 
matter used was obtained from a plant called woad, which 
was extensively cultivated. The ancient Britons and Picts 
colored themselves with the juice of the woad. Indigo is 



280 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

almost the only dye-stuff now used for giving a blue color 
to cloth ; yet several plants yield it in small quantities be- 
sides the one we have described. A blue is sometimes 
given to silk by means of verdigris and logwood, but it 
possesses little durability. 

Saffeok. — The substance called saffron- consists of the 
dried stigmas of the Fall Crocus ( Cro'cus sati'vus, Lin. S., 
iii., 2 ; Nat. M., Agl. End., ord. Irids), which is a well- 
known perennial, bulbous plant, of the Iris order. The 
Fall Crocus grows about six inches high; leaves radical 
(starting from the root) and linear ; flower with a long, 
white, slender tube, extending down nearly to the bulb, 
and having the segments above purple ; stigma long, three- 
cleft, projecting beyond the flower, and of a rich, deep or- 
ange-red color, or what is called saffron. Saffron, which is 
one of the richest yellows, is much employed by painters 
and dyers ; it was formerly much used in medicine, and it 
is now often used to color butter and cheese, sauces, creams, 
biscuits, conserves, etc. It is a harmless substance, which 
is more than can be said of most of the coloring matter 
used in confectionery and in the kitchen.* 

Logwood {Hazmatox'ylon Campechia'num, Lin. S., x., 1 ; 
Nat. M., Ang. Exog., ord. Leguminous Plants), which is 
very extensively used as a dye-wood, is a crooked-stemmed 
low tree, which grows in great abundance, and attains its 
highest perfection, in the forests of Campeachy, in the "West 

* Among other plants used for coloring yellow, we may mention, 1st. 
Dyer's Weed (Rese'da luteo'la), which affords a most beautiful dye for 
cotton, woolen, mohair, silk, and linen. The yellow color of the paint 
called Dutch Pink is obtained from this plant. 2d. Fustic-wood (Mo'~ 
rus tincto'ria), a species of the mulberry-tree. 3d. Catechu, a name 
given to several plants. 4th. Anotta, obtained from the berries of 
Bix'a orella'na. 5th. Quercitron Bark (Quer'cus tincto'ria), the bark 
of the North American black oak. 6th. Dyer's Broom (Genis'ta tinc- 
to'ria). 7th. Turmeric (Curcuma lon'ga); and, 8th. Chamomile (An- 
the'mis tincto'ria), which* yields a faint yellow ; also a species of Cartha- 
mus, often called saffron. The flowers of Car'thamus tincto'rius are ex- 
tensively used by the Chinese, in connection with different acids, to give 
some of the fine rose, scarlet, purple, and violet colors to their silks. The 
Carthamus is cultivated in many parts of Europe. 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 281 

Indies. This tree resembles the white thorn, but is much 
larger. It has abruptly pinnated leaves, with obcordate 
leaflets, and yellow flowers on a terminal spike. The inner 
bark and wood are red; the latter dark, and very red. 
This wood is imported in logs, which are afterward cut 
into fine chips ; and these chips, which impart their color 
to water and alcohol, are used for coloring. A section of 
the stem is represented on the Chart. 

Among other plants used for coloring red are the Bra- 
zil wood, or Pernambuco wood of commerce (used in mak- 
ing red ink), madder, and camwood, the latter yielding a 
brilliant red color, but one that is not permanent. Cam- 
wood is very much used for staining jrine and white wood 
coffins; and the dark red seen in the English bandana 
handkerchiefs is produced by it, rendered deeper by sul- 
phate of iron. 

(The cochineal used for dyeing crimson, and also some 
of the scarlet hues of red, consists of small insects, of which 
there are about 70,000 in a pound. This cochineal is a 
powdery-looking substance, scraped from the leaves of a 
cactus plant, and so small are some of the insects that it 
requires the microscope to detect them.) 

Madder (Hu'bia tincto 'rum, Lin. S., iv., 1 ; Nat. M.,Ang. 
Exog., ord. SteUates, or Star Flowers), a native of the south 
of Europe, Asia Minor, and India, is a trailing or climbing 
plant, the root of which is extensively used by clothiers 
and calico-printers for dyeing the scarlet reds. What is 
called Turkey red is produced by the madder from Turkey. 
The roots are nearly half an inch in diameter ; they strike 
deep into the ground, and grow to the length of three or 
four feet. They are dried, and then pounded or ground. 
"What is sold under the names of mull, gameen, crops, and 
garance, is pounded madder. 

The madder has an annual, herbaceous, quadrangular 
stalk, covered with prickles, which give it support in climb- 
ing ; leaves mostly in whorls of six ; flowers yellow ; and 
fruit a double-celled drupe or berry, as represented on the 
Chart, with a part of the flower at b, and the double ker- 
nel at c. 



282 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 

In the process of dyeing cloths, some substance must gen- 
erally be used to fix or set the color — that is, to make it 
durable, and prevent it from washing out. Thus, when 
cotton cloths are to be colored with madder, they are gen- 
erally steeped or boiled previously in alum water. The 
substance or preparation which is used to fix the color is 
called a mordant. The principal mordants are alum, tin, 
tartar, some of the oxides of lead and copper, and nut-galls. 

We have thus described, briefly, the plants used in dyeing 
the three primary colors, red, yellow, and blue. The tints, 
hues, and shades of these are produced by various mix- 
tures, on the principles explained in the article on colors, 
page 107, and also by the use of various mordants. What 
is called brown proper, however, which has in it a shade 
of yellow, and is called by the French faion color (faune), 
is obtained without mixtures from several vegetable sub- 
stances, the principal of which are sumach, the peels which 
constitute the green covering of the nut 01 the common 
walnut, or shell-bark hickory, the bark of the common white 
birch, and sandal wood. 

X. Spices. 

Allspice, Pimento, or Jamaica Pepper, is the fruit of 
a beautiful tree (Myr'tus pimen'ta, Lin. S., x., 1 ; Nat. M., 
Ang. Exog., order Myrtleblooms) , which grows in great 
abundance on hilly lands on the north side of the island of 
Jamaica. The tree grows about twenty feet high, with a 
smooth brown trunk ; leaves of a shining green, oblong- 
lanceolate, and acuminate; flowers fragrant, white, very 
abundant, and in panicles ; berries round, pulpy, purple, 
becoming reddish-brown or nearly black when ripe. The 
berries are gathered before they are ripe, when they soon 
become wrinkled, as they are seen in the shops. They 
have an agreeable, aromatic, and somewhat astringent 
taste, resembling that of a mixture of cinnamon, cloves, 
and nutmegs: hence they have been called "Allspice," 
from their taste being thought to resemble a composition 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 283 

of all other spices. The yield of the pimento is abundant, 
a single tree having been known to produce, in one season, 
150 pounds of the raw, or 100 pounds of dried fruit. 

During the year 1856 the imports of the pimento into 
the United States were nearly five millions of pounds, val- 
ued at 352,000 dollars. The average price in the market 
may be set down at fourteen cents per pound. 

The buds and berries of the common myrtle (Myr'tus 
commu'nis) were eaten as spices by the ancients, and are 
still used, instead of pepper, in Tuscany. Among the Myr- 
tleblooms are the pomegranate, cloves, the guava fruits 
(from which guava jelly is made), the rose-apples of the 
East, and some very hard-wooded trees, the most famous 
of which is the lignum vitce of New Zealand. 

Ginger is the dried root of a plant (Zin'ziber officinale, 
Lin. S., i., 1 ; Nat. M., Agl. End., ord. Gingericorts) which 
is a native of the East Indies and China, but which is now 
cultivated in great quantities in the West Indies. 

The ginger plant has perennial, creeping, tuberous roots, 
from which arise green, reed-like, annual stalks, about two 
feet and a half in height, having narrow and lanceolate 
leaves. The flowering stalk ends in an oblong scaly spike, 
as represented on the Chart, and from each of these scales 
a single red or purplish flower is produced. 

The roots of ginger are taken up when the stalks fade. 
The best are then washed with care, scraped, and dried in 
the sun, and these produce the white ginger of commerce ; 
the poorer roots are scalded before being dried, and these 
produce what is called black ginger. What is known as 
preserved ginger consists of the root taken up before it is 
full grown, scalded, and preserved in sirup. The amount 
of ginger annually imported into the United States is val- 
ued at about 65,000 dollars. 

Ginger is used not only as a spice in cooking, but also as 
a medicine. Dried ginger has a pungent, aromatic odor, 
and a hot, biting taste. It makes a stimulating drink, use- 
ful in colic, debility, and laxity of the system. 

(Among the Gingerworts, which are mostly aromatic, 



284 MANUAL OF INFOBMATION 

tropical, herbaceous plants, and generally of great beauty, 
are numerous species used as spices ; the warming carda- 
mom seeds of the druggist ; grains of Paradise, used to 
give a pungent flavor to spirituous liquors ; several which 
yield a starch-like arrow-root, and the turmeric used in 
dyeing yellow.) 

The Cinnamon of commerce is the bark of the cinnamon- 
tree {Lau'rus cinnamo'mum, Lin. S., ix., 1 ; Nat. M., Ang. 
Exog., ord. Laurels), a native of Ceylon, where it grows in 
abundance, and also of Cochin-China, and perhaps of some 
other countries. The cinnamon-tree grows to the height 
of about twenty feet, has a smooth ash-colored bark, a 
short, erect trunk, and wide-spreading branches ; leaves of 
a bright green above, pale beneath, white-veined, ovate-ob- 
long, and tapering at the apex ; flowers green and yellow, 
in panicles, and inodorous ; fruit the size of an olive, soft, 
insipid, and of a deep blue, inclosing a nut. The inner 
bark, which is taken from branches of two or three years' 
growth, is considered the best. There are several species 
of cinnamon from which the bark is obtained. Good cin- 
namon has an agreeable, warm, aromatic flavor, and a mild, 
sweetish taste, not so pungent but that it may be borne on 
the tongue without pain. Oil of cinnamon is obtained 
from the leaves, and oil of camphor from the roots. What 
are called cassia-buds are mostly the fleshy receptacles of 
the seed of the true cinnamon-tree. 

(Most of the numerous species of the Laurel order are 
more or less aromatic and fragrant. Our sassafras belongs 
to the same order. The true cassia bark and buds [Lau'- 
rus cas'sia) are used for the same purposes as cinnamon ; 
and most of the camphor of commerce is obtained, by dis- 
tillation, from the roots and smaller branches of one of the 
Laurels {Lau'rus cam'phora), usually called camphor-tree, 
although the cinnamon-trees also produce camphor.) 

The Ntjtmeg-tree {Myris'tica moscha'ta, Lin. S., xx., 
13 ; Nat. M., Ang. Exog., ord. Nutmegs) is a native of the 
East Indies, where it is extensively cultivated, especially in 
the Molucca Islands and Sumatra. It grows to the height 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 285 

of thirty feet ; leaves oblong, acuminate, of a fine green on 
the upper surface, and gray beneath ; flowers small, white, 
bell-shaped, and without any calyx ;* the fruit a smooth, 
fleshy, reddish berry, about the size of a small peach, but 
more pointed at both ends. 

The outer pulpy part of the fruit is nearly half an inch 
thick ; but this dries up when ripe, and forms a coriaceous 
(leather-like) crust, which opens and discovers a second 
covering, of a fine reddish-yellow, somewhat like the thin 
skin of an orange. This second covering or skin, which 16 
taken off by itself, and used as a spice, is what is common- 
ly called Mace. It has a pleasant aromatic smell, and a 
warm, bitterish, pungent taste. Within this covering of 
mace is a nut, having a hard black shell, and containing a 
round, heavy, brightish-gray kernel, which is the nutmeg 
of commerce. 

There are several varieties of the nutmeg-tree, but that 
denominated the green nutmeg, which bears a small round 
nut, is the best. During the year ending June 30th, 1856, 
there were imported into the United States about 600,000 
pounds of nutmegs, valued at 326,000 dollars. During the 
same year there were imported about 45,000 pounds of 
mace, valued at 24,000 dollars. 

The nutmeg can be used safely in small quantities only. 
In excess it produces oppression of the chest, intense thirst, 
headache, and even delirium and fatal apoplexy. 

The Clove-teee {Caryojyhyl'lus aromat'icus, Lin. S., xi., 
1 ; Nat. M., Ang. Exog., ord. Myrtleblooms) is a native of 
the Molucca Islands, where it has been produced in great 
abundance from the earliest known records. It is now 
cultivated to some extent in the "West Indies. 

The clove is a handsome tree, about twenty feet in 
height, with leaves nearly resembling those of the laurel. 
First the elongated greenish-yellow flower-buds, which are 
the calyx of the flower, appear; then from their extremity 
the corolla shoots forth, of a delicate peach-blossom color. 

* Some botanists consider that the nutmeg has a white calyx, and no 
corolla. 



286 MANUAL OF INFOEMATION 

When the corolla begins to fade, the calyx turns first yel- 
low and then red. At this latter stage the calyx buds are 
beaten from the tree, and, after being dried in the sun, are 
what are known as the cloves of commerce. If allowed to 
remain on the tree too long, the pungent properties of the 
clove are in great part dissipated. The average produce 
of a clove-tree is about two pounds of dried cloves per an- 
num. 

Good cloves, which should be large-sized, perfect in all 
parts, and of a dark brown color, approaching to black, 
have a strong, fragrant, aromatic odor, and a hot, acrid, 
aromatic taste, which is very permanent. For culinary 
purposes, the uses of cloves are almost innumerable. Oil 
of cloves, which is obtained from cloves by distillation, is 
extremely hot and fiery, and of a pale reddish-brown color. 

As cloves readily absorb moisture, and are sold by the 
ounce or pound, it is said that some merchants keep a 
quantity beside a vessel of water, by which means a con- 
siderable addition is made to their weight. 

Other Spices. 

Black Pepper, a very common spice, is the fruit of a 
climbing plant {Pi'per ni'grum) which is extensively cul- 
tivated in the East India islands. It considerably resem- 
bles the grape-vine, with leaves somewhat like those of the 
ivy. It bears spikes of green flowers, which are followed 
by red berries. These, when gathered and dried, become 
deep brown or black, and are the black pepper of com- 
merce. There are about eighty species of the pepper 
genus. About seven millions of pounds of black pepper 
are imported into the United States annually. 

White Pepper is made by blanching the finer grains of 
the common black pepper, and gently rubbing them, so as 
to remove the dark outer coat. It is much prized by the 
Chinese, but is seldom seen here. 

Cayenne Pepper is the produce of several varieties of 
Ca/jc/sicum, an annual plant, a native of both the Indies, 
producing either a pendulous oblong or globose fruit, one 



FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 287 

species of which is common in our gardens, and is usually- 
known as Red Pepper (Cap'sicum an'nuum). The best 
of Cayenne pepper is the Cap'sicum bacca'tum, or Bird 
pepper. The Cayenne se^en on our tables is the pod, dried, 
and reduced to powder. Cayenne pepper has an aromatic, 
extremely pungent, acrimonious taste, setting the mouth, 
as it were, on fire, and leaving the impression long on the 
palate. 

Red pepper is much used in a green state for pickling, 
and, when ripe, for mixing with other ingredients, as to- 
matoes, etc., to form sauces. It is also dried and ground, 
and used like Cayenne pepper. The annual production of 
black, white, and Cayenne pepper, in the East Indies, is 
about fifty millions of pounds. 

Among garden herbs often used as spices for cakes, and 
in various other kinds of cookery, are the seeds of anise, 
caraway, coriander, dill, fennel, lavender, and the leaves and 
seeds of sage, summer savory, sweet marjorum, thyme, etc. 
The pupils should tell what they know of these, and bring 
in specimens, that all may learn to recognize them. 

We have thus glanced at afeio of the Economical Uses 
of plants ; and yet, in our brief survey, we have found that 
plants furnish us, directly, with most of our food — with our 
cereal grains, bread-fruits, and other fruits, innumerable in 
kind and quality ; with our tea, and coffee, and cocoa, and 
chocolate ; with numerous other drinks to soothe, to stim- 
ulate, to intoxicate ; with sugar, and spices, and colors, and 
medicines, and poisons ; with gums, and varaishes, and bal- 
sams ; with oils, and butter, and milk ; with wood for build- 
ings, and furniture, and tools, and fuel ; and woody fibres 
for ropes and for clothing. 



APPENDIX. 



I. A1ST APPROXIMATE PROGRAMME 

FOR A COURSE OF ELEMENTARY INSTRUCTION DURING THE FIRST 
TEN YEARS OF SCHOOL LIFE. 

As the various subjects of instruction introduced in the foregoing 
pages are treated there in consecutive order, while many of them are 
necessarily brought forward in the school exercises of any one day, week, 
or term, an explanatory programme is needed to set forth clearly, and 
make available, the plan of instruction contemplated. 

Thus, although the six Heading Charts are taken up, in the preceding 
Manual, in the order of their numbering, and their uses explained, yet, 
while the pupil has three or four daily exercises in reading, he has, also, 
exercises in several other studies or departments, such as Counting, 
Adding, Printing and Drawing, Size and Form, Color, Animals, Plants, 
etc. ; and these require the use of several additional Charts. Hence 
the daily routine of the schoolroom requires its programme, with suit- 
able directions to the teacher for conducting the exercises, with refer- 
ences not only to the various Charts, but also to the various other aids — 
natural objects, etc. — needed ; and also with references to the sources of 
the information which the teacher may desire to make available. The 
following programme is designed to meet, in part, these wants, and to 
lay down a plan of scholastic training, not only from the Charts, and 
in "Object" teaching proper, but in all the subjects that enter into a 
course of elementary instruction during the first eight or ten years of 
school life. 

And yet this programme professes to be only an approximation toward 
what is needed by the teacher. Every thorough teacher must, indeed, 
make his own programme ; and the following sketch is given to aid him 
in doing it. We can present the number and names of studies which 
we think it expedient to be introduced for any particular grade of pu- 
pils, together with the general modes of instruction which we think most 
appropriate ; and we can give some of the information which the teach- 
er needs, and make suggestions which we think valuable ; but, after all, 
the teacher must, of himself, carry out the details. 

N 



290 APPENDIX. 

In our "approximate" programme we have commenced with the first 
year of school life, and carried the plan through ten years, dividing each 
year into two terms. The studies of each term are designed for a par- 
ticular grade of pupils. We have presented twelve subjects for the 
first term, but have neither designated the daily order in which they 
should be taken up, nor the time to be devoted to each. Each teacher 
must, necessarily, regulate these things according to the wants of the 
class (or grade), and according to the time which he can ,devote to it. 
For convenience of reference, we have attached the same number (in 
heavy type) to the same study throughout the several terms or grades, 
so that the teacher can easily follow out the entire course of instruction 
in any one study. To save space, when the course of instruction in any 
study is similar to the course in any preceding term, the preceding term 
and study are referred to by the marginal number opposite the name of 
the study. 

Although this programme is necessarily arranged on the supposition 
that pupils are to go through with the whole, consecutively, from the 
beginning, yet there is no difficulty in adapting the course of instruction 
in any school to it, or in allowing a class to take it up at any stage, or 
in any year of advancement. Suppose there are one hundred pupils in 
a school, and that they are in five different grades of advancement, from 
mere beginners, to those in the fifth year of school life. If the teacher 
wishes to put those pupils, who are in the fifth year, into this course, let 
him require the class to go back, and go over the programme in the 
manner of a review, and thus bring up those subjects only in which the 
class is deficient, until the class is prepared to advance systematically. 
The same may be done with each grade of pupils in the school, so that 
all may soon be pursuing the regular course of the programme. Even 
here, however, it will probably happen that teachers in different schools 
will find it expedient to vary the programme in different ways. All 
should exercise their ingenuity in bringing in suitable exercises addi- 
tional to those we have marked out ; but it may also happen that it may 
be desirable for a class to lag behind the programme in some one sub- 
ject, and to go in advance of it in another. The "teacher must exercise 
his best discretion in %11 such particulars, using the programme as a 
guide by which to form a better if he can, or one better adapted to the 
circumstances of his school. 

It may not, perhaps, be improper to express our views of the results 
of such a course of elementary training as we have here marked out. 
It has been our leading object to make it disciplinary ; such as would 
best conduce to the highest degree of mental, moraL and physical cul- 



APPENDIX. 291 

ture ; and we honestly believe that, in this important particular, the sys- 
tem here sketched in outline is immeasurably in advance of the common 
course of instruction in our primary schools. It aims to train all the 
faculties in their proper order, and to provide them, as far as possible, 
with the natural means, methods, and materials for development. If we 
succeed in successfully cultivating the perceptive faculties in early life, 
as is the aim of a true "object" system of instruction, we know that, 
through them, the rudiments of all knowledge will be most successfully 
acquired also ; for the very exercise of these faculties necessarily stores 
the mind with ideas of objects and events, and of the qualities and rela- 
tions of things, thus contributing to both mental growth and strength. 
Discipline and acquisition should, indeed, go hand in hand in any sys- 
tem of instruction ; but where discipline is sought by a forced and arbi- 
trary exercise of any faculty— as by memorizing words without mean- 
ing, learning signs before we have any ideas of the things signified — we 
do violence to nature, and the mental powers are weakened. It is by 
harmonizing mental discipline with mental acquisition, upon the basis of the 
natural order of development, that we hope for the happiest results to the 
cause of Education. 

FIRST SCHOOL YEAR. 

FIRST TERM. 

1. 1. Reading and the Alphabet. — Calling words at sight, from 
Chart No. I. See Manual,* p. 26. Also begin Chart No. II., 
Manual, p. 28. Three or four short lessons daily. Cultivate a 
natural manner of speaking the words. See, also, for suggestions, 
Calkins's Primary Object Lessons, p. 278-288. 'Also Calkins's 
Manual. 

Tlie Alphabet is to be taken up when the pupils can readily call 
the words at sight on Chart No. I. See Manual, p. 26. Two or 
more lessons daily. Spelling. See next term. 

2. 2. Counting. — Begin with counting pebbles, beans, etc., from 
one to thirty. See Calkins's Primary Object Lessons, p. 138-9. 
Also, make use of the letters in the words on Chart No. I. See pre- 
ceding Manual, p. 26. 

3. 3. Printing Letters, and Drawing. — See Manual, p. 26-7-8. 
Also Primary Object Lessons, p. 94-5-6. Use slate-pencils or lead- 
pencils. Chart No. XI. may also be used to copy from. 

4. 4. Oral Compositions : Language. — See Manual, p. 28 and 
29. Be careful to correct all faulty language in the pupils. See, 
also, suggestions in Manual, p. 14 to 18. 

* Where " Manual" is referred to, it is the present work. " Calkins's Manual" is 
referred to by name. 



292 APPENDIX. 

5. 5. Size and Form. — See Primary Object Lessons, p. 49, 50, 
160-162. Use the blocks illustrating the figures on Chart No. 
XII. Give the names, with but little explanation. 

6. 6. Color. — See Primary Object Lessons, p. 112-114; Chart 
No. XIII. , and through verse 1 of Manual, p. 92. Make use of 
the Hand Color-cards. 

7. 7. Animals. — Let pupils name all the different kinds (species) 
of animals which they have seen, describing them, and naming 
their parts and uses; also let them point out and name all the 
animals represented on Chart No. I. See, also, Calkins's Manual. 
Let the teacher tell what he has seen animals do, etc., and thus in- 
terest the children in the subject. 

8. 8. Plants. — Let pupils name (and describe as well as they can) 
all the kinds of trees they know ; also kinds of grain, garden veg- 
etables, shrubs, herbs, weeds, etc., bringing in and examining spec- 
imens of as many different kinds of leaves and flowers as they can, 
describing the forms of their roots, etc. Also point out the simi- 
lar forms of leaves, flowers, roots, etc., on Chart No. XIX. See, 
also, Calkins's Manual. 

9. 9. Physical Exercises every half hour. Human Body, etc. 
See Primary Object Lessons, p. 186-188, 190-192, and 229. We 
would enjoin upon trustees, directors, etc., the importance of hav- 
ing pleasant and inclosed play-grounds.* 

10. 10. Manners and Morals. — Pupils, at this stage, should be 
told simple stories, incidents, etc., illustrating principles in Man- 
ners and Morals. Some excellent ones, with suggestions, etc., 
may be found in "Cowdery's Moral Lessons." Do not read the 
stories to them. 

11. 11. Miscellaneous Objects — designed to carry out a sys- 
tem of familiar " Object" teaching. See Calkins's Primary Object 
Lessons, p. 26 to 35. 

12. 12. Construction. — See suggestions on this subject, p. 54 of 
Manual. Give children several pairs of straight sticks, and let 
them lay them on the tables, two by two, in as many different po- 
sitions as possible. Then let them draw the same positions on the 
blackboard. Arrange three sticks and three straight lines in a sim- 
ilar manner. Also provide them with a large number of small 
wooden blocks, like bricks, of uniform size, and let them build 
walls, pillars, buildings, etc., with them. 

Music should be introduced two or three times each day, if the 
teacher can sing, or if several of the older pupils can lead the oth- 
ers in singing. 

• Great attention should be given, from the beginning, to the cultivation of a habit 
of erectness of form and position. "While sitting at the desk, using the pencil or pen, 
etc., keep the body erect. 



APPENDIX. 293 

SECOND TEEM. 

13. 1. Reading, the Alphabet, and Spelling. — Same as first 
term, and continued through Chart No. II. See, also, Manual, 
p. 28, 30, 31, and 32. When pupils can call the words readily at 
sight, they may go over what they can thus read in concert exer- 
cises once a day. Be very careful, however, to have them repeat the 
words in a free and natural manner. Spelling. First introduced. 
Spell orally, and also with Type Letter-cards. See Manual, p. 29. 

14. 2. Counting. — Continue as before directed. See, also, Pri- 
mary Object Lessons, p. 139-146. Preceding Manual, p. 30, 31, 32. 

15 3. Printing Letters, and Drawing. — Same as before. See, 

also, Manual, p. 29, 30, 31. Charts X. and XI. Primary Object 
Lessons, p. 96, 97. 9 

16. 4. Oral Compositions, Language. — Same as before. See, 
also, Manual, p. 28, 30, 31, and 32. Be careful to correct all un- 
grammatical expressions of the pupils. 

17. 5, Size and Form. — Same as in preceding term. Also Pri- 
mary Object Lessons, p. 50-54. 

18. 6. Color. — Same as preceding term. 

19. 7. Animals. — Same as in the preceding term; and, in addi- 
tion, let pupils point out and name all the animals represented on 
the upper part of Chart XV. Anecdotes of the kinds of animals 
mentioned. See Calkins's Manual : Programme, etc. 

20. 8. Plants. — Continue the course of the exercises marked out 
for the preceding term. 

21. 9. Physical Exercises. — See preceding term. Also Calkins's 
Primary Object Lessons, p. 230-241. Let them be introduced as 
often as pupils weary of any employment. 

22. 10. Manners and Morals. — Same as first term. See, also, 
Calkins's Primary Object Lessons, p. 349-358. Also, a little vol- 
ume by Jacob Abbott, "Learning about Right and Wrong." Also, 
Sedgwick's "Morals of Manners." 

23. 11. Miscellaneous Objects.— Same as first term ; also, see 
Primary Object Lessons, from p. 26-35. 

24. 12. Construction. — Extend the exercises of the preceding 
term to four and five straight sticks and straight lines. In addi- 
tion to the uniform wooden bricks, supply pupils with wooden 
blocks, pillars, columns, etc., of various shapes and sizes, for build- 
ing houses, arches, bridges, etc. 

Music should be introduced two or three times each day if the 
teaoher can sing, or if some of the older pupils can lead the others 
in singing. 



294 APPENDIX. 

SECOND SCHOOL YEAR. 

FIRST TERM. 

25. 1. Reading and Spelling. — Review Charts I. and II., and 

continue the exercises as directed on p. 28, 30, and 31 of Manual. 
Go through Chart No. III. See Manual, p. 32-3, and begin 
Chart No. IV. ; Manual, p. 35. Begin reading in Primer also. 
Occasional concert exercises as before. See, also, in this connec- 
tion, the 10th division of exercises for this term — "Maxims and 
Mottoes." Spelling. See Manual, p. 30, 31, and 32. Accustom the 
pupils to tell what the words mean. Thus, when they spell " cat," 
let them tell what the word cat represents — that is, tell what a cat is. 

26. 2. Counting. — Continue as before (2 and 14). Primary Ob- 
* ject Lessons, p. 146-8. See, especially, Manual, p. 32. Let pu- 
pils use the Type Letter-cards, if they have them, to set up the 

figures representing the numbers, or let them print the figures on 
the blackboard or on their slates. 

27. 3. Printing, Drawing, and "Writing. — Same as before (3 and 
15), and p. 31, 32, 34, and 52 of Manual. Also, if pupils are now 
familiar with the Roman letters, let them copy the words in script 
on Chart No. IX., thus beginning with writing. Use slate-pencils 
or lead-pencils for this purpose. It is to be expected that these 
sketches will be exceedingly rude at first, but they will amuse the 
pupils, and give freedom to the movements of the hand. 

28. 4. Oral Compositions : Language. — Review former exercises. 
Also see Manual, p. 31, 32. Continued correction of ungrammat- 
ical expressions. 

29. 5. Size, Form, Lines, Measures, and Solids. — Same as be- 
fore. See, also, Primary Object Lessons, p. 160-165. 

30. 6. Color. — Same as before. Continue selecting and matching 
colors. Through verses 1 and 2, Manual, p. 92-3. Chart No. 
XIII. 

31. 7. Animals. — Same as in preceding term. See, also, Calkins's 
Manual. Descriptions and anecdotes of the kinds of animals de- 
scribed. Lessons on Birds. 

32. 8. Plants. — Continue the course marked out for the first term 
of the first year. Teach children to compare plants, and note 
their differences. Let them try to find two leaves of clover, or of 
any other plant, just alike, and tell wherein they differ. This will, 
lead them to observe, carefully, a thousand particulars which would 
otherwise pass unnoticed, and also to put their ideas thus acquired 
into language. 

33. 9. Physical Exercises. — Continued as before directed (9 and 
21), but less frequent as pupils become older, and as their interest 
increases in other school exercises. 



APPENDIX. 295 

34. 10. Manners and Morals, Maxims and Mottoes. — Same 
as before suggested (10, 22). Also, as pupils are now supposed 
to be able to read from Charts I., II., and III., and from the Type 
Letter-cards, take up the " Maxims and Mottoes" (see Manual, p. 
295), one each day, and go through from No. 1 to 20. In the 
morning the teacher announces the maxim or motto for the day, 
and allows some pupil tp set it up with the Letter-cards on the 
Composing-frame, or to write or print it on the blackboard, where 
it remains in view of the whole school. Before dismissing for the 
day the teacher calls on one or more pupils to rise and repeat the 
maxim, and tell its meaning if they can. Probably the younger 
pupils will not be able to accomplish much at present in this exer- 
cise ; but after the teacher has drawn from them what ideas he 
can, he himself should illustrate and enforce the meaning.* 

35. 11. Miscellaneous Objects. — Review and enlarge upon the 
ground previously gone over. Name objects to children, and let 
them tell their parts. Thus, name the different parts of a house ; 
of the human frame ; of a table, window, watch, hat, sled, apple, 
peach, book, stove, chair, herb, tree, carriage, knife, etc. ; names 
of the days of the week, months of the year; number of days in 
the week, weeks in the year, days in the year ; meaning of couple, 
pair, brace, dozen, score, right, left, quii-e of paper, ream of paper, 
etc. 

36. 12. Construction. — Continue the exercises of the two pre- 
ceding terms. The tangram may also be used. See Primary 
Object Lessons, p. 47. Marbles and balls should be provided for 
out-door exercises, and the pupils should be taught how to use 
them, with various exercises in tossing, bounding, and catching 
balls. Explain to them why the ball bounds. Show them how to 
make a goose-quill air-gun, and, in connection with its use, ex- 
plain the elasticity of the air. Illustrate by compressing a piece 
of India-rubber and letting it spring back suddenly to its shape. 
Teachers need not be ashamed to exhibit an interest in such phil- 
osophical experiments. 

Music should be introduced two or three times each day if the 
teacher can sing, or if some of the older pupils can lead the others 
in singing. 

SECOND TERM. 

37. 1. Reading, Spelling, and Elementary Sounds.— Review 
and continue Charts III. and IV., as before directed, p. 32 and 35-6 
of Manual ; also Chart No. V., Manual, p. 38. Also read in the 

* The teacher will find it convenient, and interesting to the pupils, to use the Com- 
posing-frame (with the Cards) for his bulletin-board. He writes, or tells an order to 
a pupil, and the latter places it on the bulletin. 



296 APPENDIX. 

Primer. Teach the elementary sounds of the vowels from Chart 
I. Thus, pointing to "cap," pronounce the word, and then give 
the sound of its vowel a. Go over Chart I. in this manner. Oc- 
casional concert exercises as before. Give some attention to punc- 
tuation and capitals. See Manual, p. 39. 

Spelling. — Continue spelling as before (25). Also see Manual, 
p. 33-4. Also spell orally the words on Charts I., II., and III., 
the teacher naming the word, and requiring the pupils to first pro- 
nounce it, and then spell it. Let pupils tell what each word 
means, as before. Spell orally, or with cards, the leading words 
used in the various lessons of the day. 

38. 2. Counting, Adding, etc. — Continue as before (2, 14, and 26), 
and see, also, Primary Object Lessons, p. 148-153. Also p. 34 of 
preceding Manual. 

39. 3. Drawing and Writing. — See Manual, p. 37, under head of 
"Printing and Drawing." On writing, see Manual, p. 51. Use 
pencils. Form the words on Chart No. IX., and also write in 
script the words on Chart No. I. For drawing, see Manual, 
p. 52. 

40. 4. Oral Compositions : Language. — See exercises under this 
head, p. 33 of Manual, in connection with Chart No. III. Cor- 
rect all faulty language. 

41. 5. Lines, Measures, Forms, and Solids. — Continue as before 
(17, 29), and see, also, Primary Object Lessons, p. 165-173. 

42. 6. Colors. — Same as preceding term; also through verses 3 
and 4, p. 93 of Manual. 

43. 7. Animals. — Same as in preceding terms (19, 31). Let pu- 
pils tell the names of as many kinds of birds as they can, describ- 
ing them, telling where they have seen them, etc. Let them point 
out and name as many as they can on Chart No. XVII. Also 
continue the use of Chart No. XV. See Manual, p. 130-1. Anec- 
dotes of the animals mentioned. See Calkins's Manual, lessons 
on Birds. 

44. 8. Plants. — Continue the exercises as directed (8 and 32). Also 
take up the subject of the "Forms of Leaves," Chart No. XIX., 
more particularly, and let pupils find and bring in leaves of sim- 
ilar forms. They may now be told the terms descriptive of these 
forms. See Manual, p. 177 to 182. Chart No. XIX. 

45. 9. Physical Exercises.— Continued as before (9, 21, 33). 
Battledoor and shuttlecock, and the excercise of throwing hoops, 
called "The Graces," may now be introduced where they can be 
carried on in the open air. They will give ease and grace of 
movement, and impart skill in execution. Connect philosophical 
explanations with battledoor and shuttlecock, as suggested under 
head of " Construction," in preceding term. The teacher should 



APPENDIX. 297 

now consult the system of Dr. Lewis, of Boston, and henceforth 
adapt it to the wants of his school. 

46. 10. Mannebs and Morals, Maxims and Mottoes. — Same as 
before suggested (10, 22,34). See how many of the twenty, pupils 
can repeat and illustrate. Continue their daily use. 

47. 11. Miscellaneous Objects. — Review the ground previously 
gone over (23, 35), and take up the exercises in Calkins's Primary 
Object Lessons, p. 36-40. 

48. 12. Construction. — Continue the exercises before given under 
this head (12, 24, and 36). In addition, children may be interest- 
ed in folding and cutting paper (newspaper will answer) in various 
patterns, and forming boxes, envelopes, etc. They may cut the 
paper with small paper-folders, after doubling it down, which will 
avoid the necessity of using any sharp instruments. 

49. 13. Geographical. — Introduce the exercises suggested on p. 
82-3 of Manual, First, Second, and Third Lessons. See, also, 
Calkins's Primary Object Lessons, p. 162 to 166 and 242 to 248. 

Music should be introduced two or three times each day if the 
• teacher can sing, or if some of the older pupils can lead the others 
in singing. 

THIRD SCHOOL YEAR. 
first term. 

50. 1. Reading, Spelling, and Elementary Sounds. — Reading 
from Charts IV., V., and VI. See Manual, p. 35-6, 38, and 39- 
40. Also read in Primer or First Reader. See Manual, p. 39. In 
elementary sounds, take up Chart No. VII., as directed in Manu- 
al, p. 43, and go as far as " Additional Exercises," p. 44. Attend 
to punctuation and capitals, Manual, p. 39, and occasional concert 
exercises. 

Spelling. — Continue as before (25 and 37). See, also, Manual, 
p. 37-8. Also spell each day, orally or with the Letter-cards, the 
names of all leading words introduced in the reading lessons, and 
also those used in the various lessons of the day under the head 
of colors, animals, plants, etc. Let pupils tell their meaning. 

51. 2. Numbers. — Continue as before (2, 14, 26, and 38). See Man- 
ual, p. 34, 37, and 38. Let the teacher give additional exercises 
in counting, adding, and subtracting other objects, but using Jiyures 
to represent them. See, also, Primary Object Lessons, p. 154, and 
preceding Manual, p. 40. 

52. 3. Drawing and Writing on slates and blackboard. See 
Manual, p. 38, 40, 50, 51. Let pupils continue writing the lessons 
on the early Charts in script, with Chart No. IX. before them. 
Writing in writing-books, from copies, may now be commenced, 
but a sharp and long pencil would be preferable to a pen. It 

N 2 



298 APPENDIX. 

should be held as a pen. For drawing, see Manual, p. 52, and 
Chart No. X. 

53. 4. Oral and "Written Compositions: Language. — Same 
as before (28, 40), and see, also, Manual, p. 36. Continue the 
correction of ungrammatical expressions, etc. 

54. 5. Lines, Measures, Forms, Solids, Weights. — Same as be- 
fore (17, 29, 41), and also Primary Object Lessons, p. 174-180, 
and the preceding Manual, p. 80, 81, and 89. 

55. 6. Colors. — Same as before (30, 42). — Let pupils bring in col- 
ored objects, cloths, worsted, etc., and tell what colors they most 
resemble — matching them first with the hand Color-cards, and 
then with the colors on Chart No. XIII. 

56. 7. Animals. — Continue as before (31, 43). Manual, p. 130- 
133, and Chart No. XV. Also use Chart No. XVIL, and let pu- 
pils name and describe what reptiles and what fishes they have 
seen. Introduce the subject of Insects. See Calkins's Manual 
for lessons on insects. Interesting accounts of any of the animals 
mentioned should be given. 

57. 8. Plants. — Continue in the course of the previous exercises 
(32, 44), and go through with the first six divisions of "Forms" 
on Chart No. XIX., learning their names as far as it can easily be 
done. See Manual, p. 178 to 186. 

58. 9. Physical Exercises as before directed (9, 21, 33, 45). 

59. 10. Manners and Morals, Maxims and Mottoes. — Same as 
before (10, 22, 34, 46). The teacher should be constantly accu- 
mulating new stories, incidents, etc., for illustration. Review max- 
ims and mottoes, and continue their use. Manual, p. 

60. 11. Miscellaneous Objects. — Review the ground previously 
gone over. Teacher may exercise the pupils in naming the qual- 
ities of objects, and writing them on the blackboard, or setting them 
up with the Letter-cards. Thus an object may be (comparatively) 
long or short, broad, narrow, light, heavy, etc., and thus through 
all the varieties of form and size : similarly as to its color. Other 
qualities, as hard, soft, elastic, opaque, solid, hollow, etc. Name 
the objects, and let pupils tell and write down as many qualities as 
they can. The pupils may then form these qualities into oral 
compositions descriptive of the objects. Teacher may also name 
qualities, and pupils name their opposites. Thus the teacher 
names good, wet, hot, left, deep, loud, true, slow, up, hard, kind, 
broad, open, tame, light, poor, just, old, bitter, weak, round, nar- 
row, healthy, polite, white, crooked, grateful, transparent, etc., etc. 
Pupils should tell the uses of things mentioned ; for example, of 
leather, cloth, bucket, air, water, fire, sun, wood, paint, iron, stone, 
brick, pen, book, ink, clock, slate, ear, eye, mouth, tongue, nose, 
hands, feet, wings, knife, axe, hammer, nails, saw, chalk, sponge, 



APPENDIX. 299 

broom, pail, mirror, chimney, lead-pencil, newspaper, spade, hoe, 
plow, harrow,, etc., etc. See, also, Calkins's Manual. 

61. 12. Construction. —Continue, occasionally, all the exercises 
previously suggested under this head (24, 36, and 48), and, addi- 
tionally, show the pupils how to form water-wheels, wind-mills, 
etc. The younger pupils may get their parents or older pupils to 
construct these for them. Explain what makes the water-wheel 
turn— the force of the water ; the wind-mill — the force of the air, 
etc. Explain why their wooden blocks, walls, etc., sometimes 
tumble down ; why their marbles roll down hill ; why water runs 
— rolls — clown hill, etc. 

62. 13. Geographical. — Continue the exercises of the preceding 
term (49), and take up Fourth and Fifth Lessons of Manual, p. 
83. See, also, Primary Object Lessons, p. 166 to 173 and 248 to 
263. 

Music should be introduced two or three times each day if the 
teacher can sing, or if some of the older pupils can lead the others 
in singing. 

SECOND TERM. 

63. 1. Reading, Spelling, and Elementary Sounds. — Charts V. 
and VI. reviewed, and Manual, p. 38, 39, 40. Also Primer or 
First Reader. Occasional concert exercises as before. Attention 
to inflections, punctuation, capitals, etc. See Manual, p. 39 and 
41. Elementary sounds through A and E, p. 44-5 of Manual, 
Chart VII. First Reader, and begin the Second. Continue spell- 
ing exercises as before directed (25, 37, and 50). The spelling- 
book may also now be introduced. 

64. 2. Numbers.— Continue as before (2, 14, 26, 38, and 51). See, 
also, Manual, p. 40, 41. Counting from 1 to 100, forward and 
backward. Use of numeral frame. Learn the Roman numerals 
from I. to L., and form them on the blackboard or on slates, or 
set them up with the cards to designate any given number. For 
exercises, let one pupil place any given number, say twenty-nine 
objects, of any kind, on the table ; let another set up the words 
*' twenty-nine" on the frame with the Letter-cards ; let another set 
up the same in figures, "29 ;" and another set up the same with 
the Roman numerals, "XXIX." 

65. 3. Drawing and Writing.— Continue as in the preceding term. 

66. 4. Oral and Written Compositions : Language. — Same as 
before (28, 40, 53). See, also, Manual, p. 33, 36, and 40. Atten- 
tion to punctuation, capitals, inflections, etc., and constant correc- 
tion of ungrammatical expressions. 

67. 5. Lines, Measures, Forms, Solids, Weights, Sounds. — 
Same as before (17, 29, 41, 54). Also, Primary Object Lessons, 



300 APPENDIX. 

p. 182-185. Charts Nos. XI. and XII., and Manual, p. 80, 81, 
and 89, with simple definitions of terms, p. 90, 91. 

68. 6. Colors. — Same as before (30, 42, 55), and also explain the 
Primaries, Secondaries, Tertiaries, Sub-Secondaries, an* Sub-Ter- 
tiaries, from Chart No. XIV., Manual, p. 100, 101. Two or three 
lessons each week. 

69. 7. Animals. — Review the ground gone over, taking a general 
view of the mammalia, birds, reptiles, fishes, and insects, and fin- 
ish the subject of No. 1, Chart XV. Go over, briefly, the lower 
half of Chart No. XV. Anecdotes, incidents, etc. 

70. 8. Plants. — Continue as before directed (32, 44, 57), and go 
through with the last two divisions of Chart No. XIX., Manual, 
p. 186 to 189. 

71. 9. Physical Exercises as before directed (9, 21, 33, 45). 

72. 10. Manners and Morals, Maxims and Mottoes. — Same as 
before suggested (22, 34, 46, 59). Continue maxims and mottoes 
as far as practicable. 

73. 11. Miscellaneous Objects. — Continue as before (23, 35, 47, 
and 60), the teacher preparing a variety of object-lesson exercises — 
taking up common objects — and being careful not to go beyond the 
capacity of his pupils. See Calkins's Manual of Object Lessons. 
If the teacher has a small collection of minerals, that subject 
may now be taken up. Pupils should first learn to distinguish 
and name the common metals — gold, silver, copper, iron, tin, lead, 
zinc, and brass, a compound of copper and zinc, and bronze, a com- 
pound of copper and tin. Let pupils tell their qualities and uses 
as far as they can. Specimens should be examined. See Calkins's 
Manual. 

74. 12. Construction. — Continue all the previous exercises (24, 
36, 48, and 61). Add new games and amusements, chiefly for 
out-door recreation ; and, especially, introduce those which may 
be used to illustrate philosophical principles. Show them the con- 
struction of whistles, fifes, etc., telling them what kinds of wood 
they may get, what bark peels easily, at what season of the year, 
and why then. Show them how to make and raise a kite, and 
explain, in familiar language, how it is carried up in the air. See 
Fifth Eeader, p. 350. Encourage pupils to make (out of school), 
or to get others to make for them, kites, water-wheels, wind-mills, 
fifes, whistles, ships, wagons, machines, etc. The teacher should 
spend as much time as possible, out of school, with his pupils, par- 
ticipating in their games and amusements, and giving them a 
proper direction. 

75. 13. Geographical. — Review the ground previously gone over 
(49 and 62), and continue in the order marked out on p. 86, 87, 
and 88 of Manual. See, also, Primary Object Lessons, p. 263 to 268. 

Music as before directed. 



• 



APPENDIX. 301 

FOURTH SCHOOL YEAR. 

FIRST TERM. 

76. 1. Reading, Spelling, and Elementary Sounds. — Continue 
the use of the blackboard, the Charts V. and VI., if necessary, and 
the Letter-cards, and proceed with the Readers. No word should 
be passed by until the pupil has a correct idea of its meaning as 
used in the lesson. Yet the pupil may understand the meaning of 
the sentence without being able to define each word separately. 
The latter is not so important as the former. Question pupils 
thoroughly on the meaning of each sentence rather than upon the 
mere abstract meaning of separate words. Pay particular atten- 
tion to correct pronunciation, distinct articulation, inflections, em- 
phasis, etc. Make a spelling lesson out of every reading lesson. 
See, also, Calkins's Programme in his Manual, 2d and 3d steps 
of 2d grade, etc. Elementary sounds reviewed, and continued 
through the vowel sounds, Manual, p. 45-6, Chart VII. Concert 
exercises, both in reading and in the elementary sounds. Spell 
all important words in the reading and other lessons. Regular 
lessons from the spelling-book. Also, continue as suggested (25, 
37, 50, and 63). 

77. 2. Numbers. — See previous suggestions (26, 38, 51, and 64). 
Mental arithmetic may now be taken up. Make all examples as 
practical as possible. Continue Roman numerals from L. to C, 
as directed for preceding term. 

78. 3. Drawing and Writing. — For drawing, see Manual, p. 52-3, 
and Chart No. X. Let the pupil also draw the " forms of leaves," 
and forms of their margins, both from Chart No. XIX., and from 
Nature. It is supposed that they have already learned the appro- 
priate terms descriptive of these forms. Continue writing from 
Chart No. IX., etc., and from writing-books. 

79. 4. Written Compositions : Language. — Let pupils write com- 
positions on the subjects of Natural History especially, which they 
have already gone over from the Charts, under the heading of 
"Animals," "Plants," etc. ; also, in connection with such other 
subjects of study for thejerm as the teacher may select. This 
may include "Manners and Morals," "Maxims," "Miscellaneous 
Objects," "Construction and Collections," etc. See, also, the sub- 
ject of " Compositions" throughout the Manual. Continue correc- 
tions of language, etc. 

80. 6. -Colors. — Continue the exercises as before (55, 68), and go 
through the semi-neutral colors, Manual, p. 101-2, Chart XIV. 
Also return to Chart No. XIII., and go through the exercises, 
Manual, p. 94-5. 

81. 7. Animals. — Go over the subjects of Nos. 1, 2, and 3, Chart 



302 APPENDIX. 

XV., and Manual, from p. 130 to 141. Continue the subjects of, 
Birds, Eeptiles, Fishes, and Insects, as before. Also, describe brief- 
ly, and point out on the Chart, No. XVII., the first order of Birds, 
Manual, p. 170-1 ; the four orders of Eeptiles, Chart No. XVIII., 
and Manual, p. 174-5. 

82. 8. Plants. — Review, and continue the course of the previous 
exercises (32, 44, 57, and 70) ; also, if it is the right season of the 
year, commence a critical examination of the different parts of a 
flower, and the classification of plants on the Linnsean System. 
See Manual, p. 189 to 193, and Chart No. XX. - 

83. 9. Physical Exercises. — As before directed (9, 21, 33, 45). 

84. 10. Manners and Morals, Maxims and Mottoes. — Same as 
before suggested (22, 34, 46, 59, 72). Continue maxims and mot- 
toes, and review, daily, those gone over. 

85. 11. Miscellaneous Objects. — Continue as before suggested 
(23, 35, 47, 60, and 73). Explain to pupils the three great divi- 
sions of Nature : the Animal Kingdom, the Vegetable Kingdom, 
and the Mineral Kingdom. Tell them all material objects that are 
not either animal or vegetable are called minerals. Let them tell 
what things, therefore, belong to the mineral kingdom — all which 
have not organised forms. All rocks are minerals ; all soils also, 
unless they are formed by the partial decay of vegetable or animal 
substances. Teacher should have a cabinet of the principal rocks, 
and pupils should learn to recognize and name them.* See, also, 
Calkins's Manual — Minerals. 

86. 12. Construction: Cabinet Collections, etc. Continue 
such of the previous exercises as are of farther interest and utility 
(48, 61, and 74). Pupils may now begin to make collections of 
plants for herbariums. See Manual, p. 201. Separate collections 
of preserved specimens of leaves of as many kinds of trees as pos- 
sible, with names of the trees ; also, of different kinds of wood, in 
small blocks. Once each week, a half hour or more may be de- 
voted to an examination of the museum thus collected, machines, 
instruments, etc. Questions and explanations. 

87. 13. Geographical and Historical. — Continue the geograph- 
ical exercises as before suggested^ (49, 62, and 75). Also, begin 
now to draw from the pupils the history of the immediate neigh- 
borhood, or School District, in the following manner: 1. Let them 
tell the names of the residents, where they reside, on what streets, 
in what direction from the school-house, and how far from it. 2. 
The occupations of the inhabitants — as farmers, mechanics, mer- 

* The writer hopes to make arrangements for providing cheap geological cabinets 
for school use. Very little can be done in giving pupil3 a knowledge of geology with- 
out the aid of a well-arranged cabinet ; and with such aid pupils will almost teach 
themselves. 



APPENDIX. 303 

chants, manufacturers, etc. 3. Names and residences of the trust- 
ees, directors, or other school officers of the district, and their gen- 
eral duties. 4. Any historical incidents of the district or neigh- 
borhood that may be proper to be narrated. 
Music as before directed. 

SECOND TERM. 

88. 1. Reading, Spelling, and Elementary Sounds. — Same di- 
rections as before given. Review elementary sounds, and con- 
tinue through p. 46-7 of Manual, Chart VII. Spelling as before 
directed (25, 37, 50, and 63). 

89. 2. Numbers. — See previous suggestions (26, 38, 51, 64, and 77). 
Mental Arithmetic, Multiplication Table, etc. Exercises in rapid 
combinations of numbers should be introduced, and should be fre- 
quent ; easy at first, and gradually increasing in difficulty. Thus : 
teacher repeats aloud and slowly, "2, add 3, add 10, subtract 5, 
multiply by 2," and pupils tell the result. Let the teacher devise 
a series of such combinations. 

90. 3. Drawing and Writing. — Continue as before (52 and 78). 
See, also, p. 52-3-4 of Manual, and Chart No. X. Make draw- 
ings of every thing on Chart No. XIX., and also copy the same 
forms from the natural objects, if possible. Writing continued. 

91. 4. Written Compositions : Language. — See directions (66, 
79). Require pupils to use the pocket blank-books, as suggested 
in the Manual, p. 17-18. Let them write sketches of most of their 
lessons. 

92. 6. Colors. — Review. Also the same as preceding term. 

93. 7. Animals. — Same as the preceding term. Also describe 
briefly and point out the birds in the second and third orders, 
Chart No. XVII., Manual, p. 171-2 ; also the first order of Fish- 
es, Chart No. XVIII., and Manual, p. 175-6; also go over the 
subjects of Nos. 4 and 5, Chart XV., and Manual, p. 141-7. 

94. 8. Plants. — Continue the course of the previous exercises (44, 
57, 70, and 82). A critical examination of the parts of the flow- 
ers of various plants, etc. Also, take up, in familiar talks, the sub- 
ject of the " Economical Uses of Plants," " Our Common Fruits," 
Manual, p. 209, through Apple, Pear, Peach, Quince, Plum, and 
Apricot, to p. 214, using the illustrations, Chart No. XXI. Also 
drawings, specimens, etc. 

95. 9. Physical Exercises as before directed (9, 21, 33, 45). 

96. 10. Manners and Morals, Maxims and Mottoes. — Same as 
before suggested (22, 34, 46, 59, 72, 84). Continue maxims and 
mottoes as far as practicable. 

97. 11. Miscellaneous Objects. — Continue as before suggested 
(60, 73, and 85). Teachers should exercise their ingenuity in ar- 



304: APPENDIX. 

ranging suitable exercises under this head. Continue the subject 
of Minerals, if the teacher has a suitable cabinet. See, also, Cal- 
kins's Manual of Object Lessons. Call the attention of pupils to 
the subject of trades, professions, etc., and prepare for them Object 
Lessons relating to their different employments, such as the farm- 
er, the blacksmith, the carpenter, the mason, the shoemaker, the 
merchant, the lawyer, the teacher, the printer, various manufac- 
turers, etc. ; the tools used by each, the products of each, etc., etc. 

98. 12. Construction : Cabinet Collections, etc. — Continue in 
accordance with directions for preceding term (61, 74, and 86). 
Collections of Mosses from the woods, and of Lichens from old 
fences and rocks, are very interesting. Many of these plants are 
exceedingly beautiful. By the aid of paste or glue they may be 
used to cover a cheap pine frame of a picture. They make a hand- 
some border. 

99. 13. Geographical and Historical. — Continue the course 
of the previous exercises under this head (62, 75, and 87), making 
the historical henceforth keep pace with the geographical. The 
physical geography of the neighborhood — its natural history, pro- 
ductions, with its political geography, etc. — should be introduced 
as suggested, p. 85, 86, 87, and 88 of Manual. Call up the his- 
tory of the early settlements made in the neighborhood, as far as 
possible, and bring down the general history of the neighborhood 
to the present time, ascertaining when the present families moved 
into the neighborhood, and whence they came. Historical inci- 
dents, etc. 

Music as before directed. 

FIFTH SCHOOL YEAR. 
first term. 

100. 1. Reading, Spelling, and Elementary Sounds. — Same di- 
rections as for the fourth year. Pupils may also now be required 
to define separate words in the reading lesson. For this purpose 
each should be provided with a dictionary. Continue practicing 
upon the elementary sounds, as directed in the Manual, p. 43 to 48, 
Chart VII. Take up Phonic Spelling and Phonetic Anal- 
ysis, Manual, p. 49, and Chart VIII. Continue the spelling ex- 
ercises as before directed (25, 37, 50, and 63). 

101. 2. Numbers. — Continue throughout the remainder of the 
course in accordance with such plans as the teacher may adopt. 
See, also, previous suggestions (26, 38, 51, 64, 77, and 89). Rap- 
id combination exercises, gradually more and more difficult. 
Thus : "2, add 3, add 10, subtract 5, multiply by 2, divide by 4." 
" 10, add 8, subtract 5, add 7, multiply by 4, divide by 10." Let 
the teacher form numerous sets of such exercises adapted to the 



APPENDIX. 305 

capacities of his pupils. Slate arithmetic whenever the pupils are 
prepared for it. Frequent exercises. 

102. 3. Drawing and Writing. — Continue as before (52, 78, and 
90). For drawing, see, also, Manual, p. 54. Charts Nos. XXI. 
and XXII. furnish good copies. Copy from Nature as much as 
possible. Geometrical drawing may be commenced. See Man- 
ual, p. 54-5-6-7, and Chart No. X.* Writing continued. 

103. 4. Written Compositions : Language. — See directions (66, 
79, 91). Kequire pupils to use the pocket blank-books, as sug- 
gested in the Manual, p. 17-18. Written sketches, etc. 

104. 6. Colors. — Review preceding exercises. Take up the Chro- 
matic Scale, Chart XIV., and go through the "Exercises on the 
Primaries, Secondaries and Tertiaries," as directed, Manual, p. 
103-4. 

105. 7. Animals. — Review the ground previously gone over. Birds 
in the fourth and fifth orders, Chart No. XVII. , and Manual, p. 
172-3 ; second order of Fishes, Chart No. XVIII, Manual, p. 
176-7 ; Insects, see Calkins's Manual. Also the subjects of Nos. 
6, 7, 8, 9, and 10, Chart No. XV., Manual, p. 147 to 156. 

106. 8. Plants. — Continue the course of the previous exercises (44, 
57, 70, 82, 94). Examination and classification of plants on the 
Linnasan System, Manual, p. 193 to 198, Chart No. XX. ; " Eco- 
nomical Uses of Plants," in familiar talks ; the "Common Fruits," 
Manual, p. 214, through Grape, Currant, Filbert, Gooseberry, 
Raspberry, Blackberry, Strawberry, Nuts, etc., to p. 220, using the 
illustrations, Chart No. XXI., together with drawings by the pu- 
pils, specimens, etc. Pupils make written sketches. 

107. 9. Physical Exercises as before directed (9, 21, 33, 45). 

108. 10. Manners and Morals, Maxims and Mottoes. — Same as 
before suggested (22, 34, 46, 59, 72, 84). Continue maxims and 
mottoes as far as practicable. 

109. 11. Miscellaneous Objects. —Continued in accordance with 
previous suggestions (60, 73, 85, and 97), five minutes daily. 

110. 12. Construction: Cabinet Collections, etc. — Continue 
in accordance with previous suggestions (61, 74, 86, and 98). 
Collections of minerals — different kinds of rocks, etc. — for geo- 
logical cabinets, may be commenced. Even if the names of the 
different rocks are not yet known by either teacher or pupil, an 
examination of specimens will still be valuable. Collections of 
shells may also be made. Fresh-water shells are abundant. In 
time, such collections will make not only a handsome, but a valu- 
able school museum. 

• For making these geometrical drawings on the blackboard, a pair of blackboard 
compasses, adapted to hold a chalk or talc pencil, is much needed. We hope some one 
will construct such an instrument. 



306 APPENDIX. 

111. 13. Geographical and Historical. — Extend geography and 
history to the whole town on the principles suggested (87 and 99), 
and pages 86, 87, and SS of Manual. 

Music as before directed. Declamations. 

SECOND TEEM. 

112. 1. Reading, Spelling, and Elementary Sounds. — Same 
directions as for preceding term. If the reading-books used he 
the School and Eamily Eeaders, and the subject should be the 
Mammalia (p. 87-242) in the Third Reader, let the pupils read 
with Chart No. XVI. before them. At the beginning of each 
lesson let some pupil point out on the Chart, and give an abstract 
of, the orders and families of the Mammalia as far as they hare 
gone in their reading, and tell to which order, family, etc., the 
reading lesson of the day is to be assigned. Suggest to them the 
reading out of school of such books as Children's Picture-book 
of Quadrupeds, Hooker's Natural History to p. 1 15, and any other 
similar works. Whatever be the reading lesson of the day, as 
soon as it is finished let pupils close their books. Teacher should 
then call upon pupils to tell what they have been reading about, 
and to give in their own language an analysis of the lesson. 
Continue the spelling exercises as before suggested (25, 37, 50, 
and 63). 

113. 2. Numbers. — Frequent combination exercises, reviews, etc. 
Also, continue as before suggested (64, 77, 89, and 101). 

114. 3. Drawing and "Writing. — Draw outlines from engravings, 
and also copy from natural objects. Manual, p. 52-3-4. Con- 
tinue geometrical drawings, Manual, p. 58-9, and Chart No. X. 
Writing continued. 

115. 4. Written Compositions : Language. — See directions (66, 
79, 91). Eequire pupils to use the pocket blank-books, as sug- 
gested in the Manual, p. 17-18. Written sketches, etc. 

116. 6. Colors. — Reviewing, together with the directions (104) for 
the preceding term, will be sufficient for the present term. 

117. 7. Animals. — Birds in the sixth and seventh orders, Chart No. 
XVH., and Manual, p. 173. Third order of Fishes, Chart No. 
XVHL, Manual, p. 177. Insects. Also the subjects of the re- 
maining ten numbers of Chart No. XV., Manual, p. 156 to 162. 
As introductory to the reading lessons on the Mammalia, Third 
Reader, which are supposed to be taken up this term, point out, 
on Chart No. XVI., the four great divisions of the Animal King- 
dom — Vertebrates, Articulates, Mollnsks, and Radiates. Also 
point out and describe the different races of mankind. 

The separate consideration of the subject of "Animals'' may 
now be dropped, as it is continued from time to time, from this 
point forward, under the head of "Reading." 



APPENDIX. 307 

118. 8. Plants.— Continue as before directed (82, 94, 106). Exam- 
ination and classification on the Linnsean System, Manual, p. 193 
to 198. "Economical Uses of Plants,'" in familiar talks through 
the subject of "Common Root Plants,'" Manual, p. 220 to 226, 
and Chart No. XXI. Drawings by the pupils for illustrations. 

119. 9. Physical Exercises as before directed (9, 21, 33, 45). 

120. 10. Manners and Morals, Maxims and Mottoes. — Same 
as before suggested (22, 34, 46, 59, 72, 84). Leading principles 
in morals and religious duty may now begin to be more formally 
presented. They should always be illustrated by anecdotes, in- 
cidents, historical truths, etc., as far as possible. Eemember the 
parables by which the Savior taught. The teacher should be con- 
stantly accumulating additional and appropriate maxims, mot- 
toes, proverbs, wise sayings, etc., to add to the list. 

121. 11. Miscellaneous Objects. — Continued in accordance with 
previous suggestions (60, 73, 85, and 97), five minutes daily. 

122. 12. Construction: Cabinet Collections, etc. — Continue as 
before suggested (61, 74, 86, 98, and 110). Drawings by the pu- 
pils may now begin to be added to the school museum : among 
them neat drawings of the geometrical figures, Chart X. See 
Manual, p. 57-61. Also some of the five regular solid polyhe- 
drons, cut out of pasteboard. See Manual, p. 62-3. 

123. 13. Geographical and Historical. — Continue the course 
of exercises previously suggested (87, 99, and 111). Extend 
them to the county and state, or section of the state, in which you 
reside. This will call up both the early history and the early 
geography of that part of the country, and hence will lead to our 
early Indian wars and the War of the Revolution. 

Music as before directed. Declamations. 

SIXTH SCHOOL TEAR. 
first term. 

124. 1. Reading, Spelling, and Elementary Sounds. — Read, 
spell, define, and analyze, as directed (76, 100, and 112). If the 
Fourth Book of the School and Family Readers be used, the di- 
vision of " Physiology and Health'' should be carefully read, and 
each lesson analyzed, with remarks from the teacher, enforcing 
principles. Continue the spelling exercises as before directed (25, 
37, 50, and 63). 

125. 2. Numbers continued (64, 77, 89, and 101). Combination 
exercises daily. Reviews, etc. 

126. 3. Drawing and Writing. — Continue outline drawings from 
engravings, and draw from Nature. Geometrical drawings 
through p. 59, 60, and 61 of Manual, and Chart No. X. Writ- 
ing continued. 



308 APPENDIX. 

127. 4. Written Compositions : Language. — See directions (66, 
79, 91). See, also, the suggestions under the head of " Geograph- 
ical and Historical," for the present term. Require pupils to use 
the pocket blank-books, as suggested in the Manual, p. 17-18. 

128. 6. Colors. — Review, and take up the "Exercises from the 
Scale on the Sub-Secondaries and Sub-Tertiaries," Manual, p. 
104. 

129. 8. Plants. — Continue as before directed (82, 94, 106, 118). 
Examination and classification on the Linnsean System, Manual, 
p. 193 to 198. "Economical Uses of Plants," in familiar talks, 
through the "Cereals or Corn-plants," Manual, p. 226 to 238. 
Use Chart No. XXI. Also drawings by the pupils and speci- 
mens for illustrations. "Written sketches of lessons. 

130. 9. Physical Exercises as before directed (9, 21, 33, 45). 

131. 10. Manners and Morals, Maxims and Mottoes. — Same 
as before suggested (22, 34, 46, 59, 72, 84, and 120). 

132. 11. Miscellaneous Objects. — Continued in accordance with 
previous suggestions (60, 73, 85, and 97), five minutes daily. 

133. 12. Construction: Cabinet Collections, etc. — Continue as 
before suggested (74, 86, 98, 110, and 122), making collections 
of different kinds of wood, leaves, mosses, lichens, herbariums, 
geological cabinets ; and constructing machines ; the geometrical 
solids, making drawings, etc. 

134. 13. Geographical and Historical. — Continue as before 
(111, 123). The more formal study of the geography of our 
whole country may now be taken up, with the aid of the geogra- 
phy and atlas. Its leading historical events may also be told the 
pupils in familiar talks, beginning with the story of Columbus ; 
and pupils should be required to write compositions embracing the 
events thus narrated to them. This will effectually secure their 
attention to what is told them. 

Music as before directed. Declamations. 

second term. 

135. 1. Reading, Spelling, and Elementary Sounds. — Contin- 
ued as directed (25, 37, 50, 63, 76, 100, and 112). 

136. 2. Numbers continued (64, 77, 89, and 101). Combination 
exercises. Reviews, etc. 

1 37. 3. Drawing and Writing. — Outline drawings, etc. Review 
geometrical drawings, Manual, p. 54 to 61. Make drawings for 
constructing the five regular polyhedrons, Manual, p. 61, 62. 
Writing continued. 

138. 4. Written Compositions : Language. — See directions (66, 
79, 91, 127). Require pupils to use the pocket blank-books, as 
suggested in the Manual, p. 17-18. 



APPENDIX. 309 

139. 6. Colors. — Review the exercises, Manual, p. 103, 104, 105, 
and explain and illustrate the subject of "Tones," Manual, p. 
105, 106, 107. 

140. 8. Plants. — Continue as before directed (106, 118, 129). Ex- 
amination and classification on the Linnsean System, Manual, p. 
193 to 198. "Economical Uses" continued, in familiar talks, 
through the "Fruits of Warm Countries," Manual, p. 238 to 249 ; 
using Chart No. XXL, and drawings by the pupils, for illustra- 
tions, together with such specimens as can be obtained. 

141. 9. Physical Exercises as before directed (9, 21, 33, 45). 

142. 10. Manners and Morals, Maxims and Mottoes. — Same 
as before suggested (22, 34, 46, 59, 72, 84, and 120). 

143. 11, Miscellaneous Objects. — Continued in accordance with 
previous suggestions (60, 73, 85, and 97), five minutes daily. 

144. 12. Construction : Cabinet Collections, etc. — Continue in 
the same course as before (74, 86, 98, 110, 122, and 133). The 
teacher should now fill out the programme under this head ac- 
cording to the attainments and capacities of his pupils. A Sat- 
urday's ramble with his pupils — making collections, preserving 
specimens, etc. — might be made profitable, and should be made 
interesting. 

145. 13. Geographical and Historical. — Continue the geograph- 
ical and historical studies as before suggested (111, 123, and 134). 
Historical talks, narrating important events in our own history, 
with compositions describing the same. 

Music as before directed. Declamations. 

SEVENTH SCHOOL YEAR 
FIRST term. 

146. 1. Reading, Spelling, and Elementary Sounds. — Contin- 
ued as directed (25, 37, 50, 63, 76, 100, and 112). If the pupils 
be reading the division of " Ornithology, or Birds," in the Fourth 
Reader, place before them Chart No. XVII., and follow the di- 
rections given for the Mammalia (112). In this manner pupils 
will soon acquire, and with but little effort, a familiarity with 
the scientific outlines of the subject. Suggest to them to read 
the "Children's Pictm - c-book of Birds," and Hooker's "Natural 
History" from p. 115 to 187. 

147. 2. Numbers continued QJ4, 77, 89, and 101). Combination 
exercises. Frequent revie -m. 

148. 3. Drawing and Writing. — Continue drawings from en- 
gravings and from natural objects, and form the geometrical 
figures. Take up Linear Perspective, Manual, p. 63 to 70, first 
principles, and Chart No. X. Writing continued. 

149. 4. Written Compositions : Language. — See directions (66, 



310 APPENDIX. 

79, 91, 127). Require pupils to use the pocket blank-books, as 
suggested in the Manual, p. 17-18. Sketches of lessons. 

150. 6. Colors. — Review, and go through "Hues of Colors," Man- 
ual, p. 107-8. Also exercises on "Complementary Colors," 
Manual, p. 109-110. 

151. 8. Plants. — Continue as before directed (118, 129, 140). 
Examination and classification on the Linnsean System, Manual, 
p. 193 to 198. "Economical Uses" continued, in familiar talks, 
through " Medicinal Plants ," Manual, p. 249 to 256, using Chart 
No. XXI., and drawings by the pupils, for illustrations, together 
with such specimens as can be obtained. Sketches of lessons. 

152. 9. Physical Exercises as before directed (9, 21, 33, 45). 

153. 10. Manners and Morals, Maxims and Mottoes. — Same 
as before suggested (22, 34, 46, 59, 72, 84, and 120). 

154. 11. Miscellaneous Objects. — Continued in accordance 
with previous suggestions (60, 73, 85, and 97), five minutes daily. 

155. 12. Construction : Cabinet Collections, etc. — According 
to the plan of the teacher. See suggestions (74, 86, 98, 110, 122, 
133, and 144). 

156. 13. Geographical and Historical. — Continue as before 
(111, 123, 134, and 145). History may now be taken up from 
the historical text-book. In connection with this study, we make 
the following suggestions on the subject of Written Recitations. 
Suppose the lesson, four pages in history, to have been given out 
yesterday, to be recited this morning. Suppose there are twelve 
pupils in the class, in four divisions. When the class is called, 
pupils bring their books and slates. Teacher assigns a page to 
each division ; each pupil glances over his page hastily, and at 
a given signal all lay aside their books, take their slates, and 
each writes as full a sketch of the page assigned to him as he 
can. The teacher examines the slates, and merely marks errors 
(to be corrected), and graduates the pupils according to merit. 
The advantages which this exercise will often have over the com- 
mon mode of recitation will be readily apparent to all. 

Music as before directed. Declamations. 

SECOND TERM. 

157. 1. Reading and Spelling. — See previous directions (25, 37, 
50, 63, 76, 100, and 112). If the botanical division of the Fourth 
Reader be read, use in comffction Charts XTX. and XX. Sug- 
gest to pupils to read Hooker's "Child's Book of Nature," Part 
I., Plants. 

158. 2. Numbers continued (64, 77, 89, and 101). Combination 
exercises. Frequent reviews. 

159. 3. Drawing and Writing. — Continue as before (137, 148, 



APPENDIX. 311 

etc.), frequently reviewing. Linear Perspective through p. 70, 
71, and 72. 

160. 4. Written Compositions : .Language : English Grammar. 
— See directions (66, 79, 91, 127). The separate study of En- 
glish Grammar may now be introduced, but still in connection 
with the pocket blank-book exercises, as suggested in the Man- 
ual, p. 18. 

161. 6. Colors. — Review; also "Harmony of Colors," from p. 110 
through p. 117, Manual. 

162. 8. Plants. — Continue as before directed (129, 140, 151). 
"Economical Uses" continued, in familiar talks, through "Plants 
used for Beverages" Manual, p. 256 to 2G6, using Chart No. XXII., 
and drawings by the pupils for illustration, with such specimens 
as can be obtained. In connection with the reading lessons in 
Botany, from the Fourth Reader, take up, in familiar talks, the 
"Natural Method of Classification," and go through "Polypet- 
alous" and "Apetalous" plants, Manual, p. 198 to 204, Chart No. 
XX. Let pupils write sketches of all. 

163. 9. Physical Exercises as before directed (9, 21, 33, 45). 

164. 10. Manners and Morals, Maxims and Mottoes. — Same as 
before suggested (22, 34, 46, 59, 72, 84, and 120). 

165. 11. Miscellaneous Objects. — Continued in accordance with 
previous suggestions (60, 73, 85, and 97), five minutes daily. 

166. 12. Construction : Cabinet Collections, etc. — According 
to the plan of the teacher. See suggestions (74, 86, 98, 110, 122, 
133, and 144). 

167. 13. Geographical and Historical. — Continue both, as far 
in unison as possible. See suggestions (123, 134, 145, and 156). 
Frequent reviews. 

168. 14. Dictation Exercises. — Read to the pupils brief inter- 
esting sketches, mostly narrative ; and when you have concluded, 
let them write out the same, in the language of the book as near- 
ly as possible. What is read should be suited to the ages and ca- 
pacities of the pupils. The exercises will be found admirably 
adapted to cultivate close attention, to strengthen the memory, to 
give facility of expression, and to test the proficiency of pupils in 
spelling, punctuation, inflections, use of capitals, penmanship, 
etc. They may perhaps be commenced earlier than this period 
with some classes, and may be written by the younger pupils on 
slates, but the more advanced pupils should use pen and paper. 
The teacher corrects the exercises by marking all errors, and re- 
quires pupils to rewrite where necessary- 

Music as before directed. Frequent declamations. 



312 APPENDIX. 



EIGHTH SCHOOL YEAE. 

FIRST TERM. 

169. 1. Heading and Spelling. — See directions (37, 50, 63, 76, 
100, and 112). When the Natural Philosophy division of the 
Fourth Header is read, suggest to pupils to read Mayhew's "Won- 
ders of Science" and Mayhew's "Peasant-Boy Philosopher." 

170. 2. Numbers continued (64, 77, 89, and 101). Combination 
exercises. Frequent reviews. 

171. 3. Drawing and Writing. — Continue as before (137, 148, 
etc.), frequently reviewing. Linear Perspective through p. 73, 
74, 75. 

172. 4. Written Compositions : Language : English Grammar. 
—See directions (66, 79, 91, 127, 160). In studying English 
Grammar, reference should be had more to the acquisition of cor- 
rect habits of speaking and writing than to the technicalities of 
parsing. It is better to show a mode of expression — such as "I 
intended to have gone yesterday" — to be philosophically wrong, 
than to show it to be merely a violation of an arbitrary rule of 
grammar. 

173. 6. Colors. — Eeview the whole subject of colors, and go as far 
as Division XII., p. 123 of Manual. 

174. 8. Plants. — Continue as before directed (140, 151, 162). 
"Economical Uses" continued, in familiar talks, through '■'■Plants 
used for Manufactures" Manual, p. 266 to 274, using Chart No. 
XXII., drawings, specimens, etc., for illustration. Also "Nat- 
ural Method of Classification," in familiar talks, Manual, p. 204, 
through "Endogenous Plants," p. 207, Chart No. XX. 

175. 9. Physical Exercises as before directed (9, 21, 33, 45). 

176. 10. Manners and Morals, Maxims and Mottoes. — Same as 
before suggested (22, 34, 46, 59, 72, 84, and 120). 

177. 3.1. Miscellaneous Objects. — Continued in accordance with 
previous suggestions (60, 73, 85, and 97), five minutes daily. 

178. 12. Construction: Cabinet Collections, etc. — According 
to the plan of the teacher. See suggestions (74, 86, 98, 1 10, 122, 
133, and 144). 

179. 13. Geographical and Historical. — Continue in the course 
marked out in the previous suggestions (123, 134, 145, and 156). 
Frequent reviews. Begin the use of the globes. 

180. 14. Dictation Exercises. — Same as in preceding term. 
Music as before directed. Frequent declamations. 

SECOND TERM. 

181. 1. Heading and Spelling. — See directions (37, 50, 63, 76, 
100, and 112). When the division on "Physiology and Health," 



APPENDIX. S13 

in the Fifth Reader, is read, suggest to pupils to read Combe's 
" Principles of Physiology applied to the Preservation of Health." 

182. 2. Numbers continued (64, 77, 89, and 101). Combination 
exercises. Frequent reviews. Slate arithmetic. 

183. 3. Drawing and Writing. — Continue as before (137, 148, 
etc.). Linear Perspective through p. 76, 77, 78. 

184. 4. Written Compositions : Language : English Grammar. 
—See directions (160, 172). 

185. 6. Colors. — Review as before, and finish the subject of col- 
ors, Manual, p. 123 to 129. 

186. 8. Plants. — Continue as before directed (151, 162, 174). 
"Economical Uses" continued, in familiar talks, through " Mis- 
cellaneous" plants, and plants used for "Coloring " p. 274 to 282, 
using Chart No. XXII. , drawings, etc., for illustrations. Review 
"Natural Method of Classification, " Manual, p. 198 to 209, Chart 
No. XX. After this period, the subject of " Plants" may be con- 
tinued in connection with the reading lessons (see next term) ; or 
it may be continued by taking up the study of Botany from the 
regular botanical text-book. 

187. 9. Physical Exercises as before directed (9, 21, 33, 45). 

188. 10. Manners and Morals, Maxims and Mottoes. — Same 
as before suggested (22, 34, 46, 59, 72, 84, and 120). 

189. 11. Miscellaneous Objects. — Continued in accordance with 
previous suggestions (60, 73, 85, and 97), five minutes daily. 

190. 12. Construction: Cabinet Collections, etc. — According 
to the plan of the teacher. See, also, suggestions (74, 86, 98, 
110, 122, 133, and 144). 

191. 13. Geographical and Historical. — Continue in the course 
already marked out (123, 134, 145, 156, 179). Frequent reviews. 

192. 14. Dictation Exercises. — Continue as directed (168). 
Music as before directed. Frequent declamations. 

NINTH SCHOOL YEAR. 

FIRST TERM. 

193. 1. Reading and Spelling. — See directions (37, 50, 63,76, 
100, and 112). In connection with the botanical division of the 

' Fifth Reader, place Chart No. XX. before the pupils. Before 
proceeding with the lesson, let some pupil point out on the Chart, 
and give an abstract of, the classes and families, as far as the 
class has gone. Suggest to pupils to read Gray's "How Plants 
Grow." They may also examine the introductory portions of 
Wood's or Lincoln's Botany. 

194. 2. Numbers continued (64, 77, 89, and 101). Combination 
exercises. Frequent reviews. Slate arithmetic. 

195. 3. Drawing and Writing. — Continue in the course of pre- 

o 



314 APPENDIX. 

vious exercises. Encourage pupils to form new plans in perspect- 
ive, and also to make drawings of buildings from Nature, and to 
draw the same building from different positions. 

196. 4. Written Compositions : Language : English Grammar. 
—See directions (160, 172). 

Extend the subject into rhetoric proper, and begin a survey of 
English literature from some such work as Cleveland's "Com- 
pend." One hour, or more, each week may be devoted to these 
allied subjects, in lectures by the teacher, and written sketches by 
the pupils, where they can not be made subjects of regular study 
and recitation. 

197. 6. Colors. — Eeview the entire subject of colors. 

198. 9. Physical Exercises as before directed (9, 21, 33, 45). 

199. 10. Manners and Morals, Maxims and Mottoes. — Same 
as before suggested (22, 34, 46, 59, 72, 84, and 120). 

200. 11. Miscellaneous Objects. — Continued in accordance with 
previous suggestions (60, 73, 85, and 97), five minutes daily. 

201. 12. Construction: Cabinet Collections, etc. — According 
to the plan of the teacher. See, also, suggestions (74, 86, 98, 110, 
122, 133, and 144). 

202. 13. Geographical and Historical. — Continue in the course 
already marked out (123, 134, 145, 156, 179). Erequent reviews. 

203. 14. Dictation Exercises. — Continue as before directed (168). 
Music as before directed. Frequent declamations. Element- 
ary book-keeping. 

second term. 

204. 1. Heading and Spelling. — See directions (37, 50, 63, 76, 
100, and 112). In connection with the division of Reptiles and 
Fishes in the Fifth Reader, use Chart No. XVIIT., pointing out 
the divisions as directed for the Mammalia, Birds, etc. (112, 146). 

205. 2. Numbers continued (64, 77, 89, and 101). Combination 
exercises. Frequent reviews. Slate arithmetic. 

206. 3. Drawing and Writing. — Continue as before directed (137, 
148, 195, etc.). Review Perspective. 

207. 4. Written Compositions : Language : English Grammar. 
— See directions (160, 172). 

Rhetoric and English literature. — See suggestions of preceding 
term (196). 

208. 9. Physical Exercises as before directed (9, 21, 33, 45). 

209. 10. Manners and Morals, Maxims and Mottoes. — Same 
as before suggested (22, 34, 46, 59, 72, 84, and 120). 

210. 11. Miscellaneous Objects. — Continued in accordance with 
previous suggestions (60, 73, 85, and 97), five minutes daily. 

211. 12. Construction : Cabinet Collections, etc. — According 



APPENDIX. 815 

to the plan of the teacher. See, also, suggestions (74, 86, 98, 110, 
122, 133, and 144). 

212. 13. Geographical and Historical. — Continue in the course 
already marked out (123, 134, 145, 156, 179). Frequent re- 
views. 

213. 14. Dictation Exercises. — Continue as before directed (168). 
These may, with propriety, be extended to many important sub- 
jects that can not be taken up as regular studies, such as popu- 
lar astronomy, mental philosophy (such as' Abercrombie's work), a 
description of the arts, or technology (Bigelow's work), the science 
of government, and especially our town, county, state, and national 
governments. 

Music as before directed. Frequent declamations. Element- 
ary book-keeping. 

TENTH SCHOOL YEAR. 

FIRST TERM. 

214. 1. Reading and Spelling. — See directions (37, 50, 63, 76, 
100, and 112). In connection with the division of Natural Phi- 
losophy in the Fifth Reader, pupils may read out of school Far- 
aday's "Physical Forces" — a course of six lectures; also, exam- 
ine Wells's "Science of Common Things," Porter's "Familiar 
Science," etc. In connection with the division of Physical Ge- 
ography, suggest to them to read Summerville's "Physical Sci- 
ences," or Guyot's "Earth and Man." On this and kindred 
subjects, Humboldt's " Cosmos," 5 vols. 12mo, is a suitable work 
for advanced students. 

In connection with spelling, take up the analysis of derivative 
and compound words. See M'Elligott's "Young Analyzer," and 
"Analytical Manual." 

Natural Philosophy may now be carried beyond the Fifth Read- 
er, and taken up as a study from the regular text-book in schools 
where it can be introduced in this manner. 

215. 2. Numbers continued (64, 77, 89, and 110). Combination 
exercises. Frequent reviews. Slate arithmetic. 

Algebra may now be introduced, where the school is sufficient- 
ly well graded to render it feasible. 

216. 3. Drawing and Writing. — Continue as before directed (137, 
148, 195, 206). 

217. 4. Written Compositions : Language : English Grammar. 
—See directions (160, 172). 

Rhetoric and English literature as before suggested (196). 

218. 9. Physical Exercises as before directed (9, 21, 33, 45). 

219. 10. Manners and Morals, Maxims and Mottoes. — Same 
as before suggested (22, 34, 46, 59, 72, 84, and 120). 



316 APPENDIX. 

220. 11. Miscellaneous Objects. — Continued in accordance with 
previous suggestions (60, 73, 85, and 97), five minutes daily. 

221. 12. Construction : Cabinet Collections, etc. — According 
to the plan of the teacher. See, also, suggestions (74, 86, 98, 110, 
122, 133, and 144). 

222. 13. Geographical and Historical. — Continue in the course 
already marked out (123, 134, 145, 156, 179). Frequent reviews. 

223. 14. Dictation Exercises. — Continue as before directed (168). 
See, also, suggestions (213). 

Music as before directed. Frequent declamations. Element- 
ary book-keeping. 

SECOND TERM. 

224. 1. Reading and Spelling. — See directions (37, 50, 63, 76, 
100, and 112). In connection with the division of Cherfiistry in 
the Fifth Reader, suggest to pupils to read Hooker's "First Book 
in Chemistry," and Faraday's " Chemistry of a Candle." In con- 
nection with the division cf Geology, Hugh Miller's "Old Red 
Sandstone," and Hitchcock's "Scripture and Geology." 

The analysis of derivative and compound words as before (214). 
Natural Philosophy, as a regular study, as before suggested (214). 

225. 2. Numbers continued (64, 77, 89, and 101). Combination 
exercises. Frequent reviews. Slate arithmetic. 

Algebra may be continued, and geometry taken up. 

226. 3. Drawing and Writing. — Continue as before directed (137, 
148, 195, 206). 

227. 4. Written Compositions : Language : English Grammar. 
—See directions (160, 172). 

Rhetoric and English literature as before suggested (196). 

228. 9. Physical Exercises as before directed (9, 21, 33, 45). 

229. 10. Manners and Morals, Maxims and Mottoes. — Same 
as before suggested (22, 34, 46, 59, 72, 84, and 120). 

230. 11. Miscellaneous Objects. — Continued in accordance with 
previous suggestions (60, 73, 85, and 97), five minutes daily. 

231. 12. Construction : Cabinet Collections, etc. — According 
to the plan of the teacher. See, also, suggestions (74, 86, 98, 
110, 122, 133, and 144). 

232. 13. Geographical and Historical.— Continue in the course 
already marked out (123, 134, 145, and 156). Frequent reviews. 

233. 14. Dictation Exercises as before directed (168 and 213). 
Music as before directed. Declamations. Book-keeping. 

Remarks. — The teacher who has gone through the present Manual, 
and examined the course of instruction presented in the foregoing " Pro- 
gramme," will get our views of what a system of "object" teaching 



APPENDIX. 317 

should be, and of the extent to which it should be introduced into onr 
schools. We have seen some objections to the system by those who evi- 
dently do not understand its principles, and who erroneously suppose it 
to consist of oral instructions by the teacher about "common things;" 
and many teachers, indeed, who profess to be practicing it, and who take 
this superficial view of it, are bringing the system itself into disrepute. 
Hence some are beginning to regard the system as one of mere amuse- 
ment for the child, or a system of learning made easy, that requires no 
close mental application, and gives no mental discipline. 

But we believe any sensible person who will look over the amount 
and character of the work marked out for the pupil, from the tender age 
of four years, in the foregoing programme, will admit that great mental 
activity and industry will be required to go through such a course. He 
will see that this "object" system, which is here introduced so early, and 
is peculiarly adapted to childhood, is, indeed, the very opposite of incul- 
cating lazy habits of thought in children by doing the thinking for them, 
for it is made pre-eminently the office of the teacher in this system to 
lead the pupil to think instead of telling him every thing. If by this sys- 
tem study is made attractive, it does not necessarily follow that idle 
amusements are made to take the place of study. If amusements are 
made to minister to mental activity in the acquisition of knowledge, it is 
so much additional gain. By the untiring, persevering mental effort 
which the system strives to call forth, beginning with the early and con- 
stant exercise of the perceptive faculties, the mind is sought to be 
strengthened, on the principle of the great law of labor. If it is not, 
therefore, when carried out in accordance with our views, an admirable 
system of mental gymnastics for the young, we wholly misconceive its 
tendencies. 

Nor is science made every thing in this system, as some suppose. It is 
only a part of its course ; and even then it is made an instrument only, 
while the ultimate aim is mental culture, which, however, brings with 
it, more peculiai'ly in this system than in any other, a knowledge of sensi- 
ble objects — of their character and qualities, and of the beauty, wisdom, 
goodness, and truth which God exhibits in his works. Assuredly that 
science which leads "from Nature up to Nature's God" is not useless 
knowledge, nor does it undermine faith, as those ignorant of science im- 
agine, but, on the tontrary, strengthens and supports it. 

It will, however, doubtless strike some -who have practiced "object" 
teaching, but who understand little of its true principles, that in the 
foregoing Programme and Manual we have not confined ourselves strict- 
ly to a system of mere " Object Lessons." We have designed the work 
as a "Manual of Instruction" for the whole field of primary education, 
and have introduced " object" teaching only where we thought it adapt- 
ed to the subject, and the subject suited to the ages of the pupils. And 
while we do not believe that true object teaching can be carried too far, 



318 APPENDIX. 

and while we do believe that it is the only system adapted to the unfold- 
ing faculties of childhood, we as firmly believe that there are some of the 
more advanced subjects of study to which it is not applicable ; for there 
are some subjects which, although they may often be illustrated by ma- 
terial things, do not, like the natural sciences, deal directly with mate- 
rial objects. But we believe such a course of elementary training in 
"object" teaching as we have attempted to sketch in the present vol- 
ume, in connection with the model lessons given in Mr. Calkins's "Man- 
ual, " will, if carried out in tbe right manner by the teacher, lay the very 
best and only true foundation for a mental superstructure in which all 
science, all art, and all literature shall be found combined in harmonious 
proportions. We would begin with science — a knowledge of the world 
around us — just as Nature begins her teachings, instead of putting off 
science to the last thing in education, where it is generally neglected en- 
tirely ; and the fine arts should crown the edifice. We would also have 
pupils, from the very beginning, employ their faculties, and make use of 
their knowledge, by descriptions of things, in a series of " Oral Composi- 
tions," which should give place to the frequent use of the pen, and 
searching analysis, as the course advances. Gradually the exercises in 
any department or study should lead onward, by easy gradations, to the 
hardest set tasks, requiring the severest mental labor, but never in ad- 
vance of the progressive attainments of the pupil. Let teachers be im- 
pressed with the idea that the true "object" or development system should 
be regarded, primarily, as a means of mental culture, and not merely as a 
medium of acquisition ; and in all their school exercises let them study 
how best to awaken observation, secure attention, improve the memory, 
develop thought, and cultivate the reason ; for thus only will the great 
ends of education be attained. 



APPENDIX. 319 



II. MAXIMS AND MOTTOES, APHORISMS AND 
PROVERBS, FOR THE SCHOOLROOM. 

The genius, wit, and spirit of a nation are discovered in its maxims and proverbs. — 
Bacon. 

Proverbs are, for the most part, rules of moral, or, still more properly, of prudential 
conduct. — Brande. 

Proverbs embody the current and practical philosophy of an age or nation. — Fleming. 

A proverb is the wit of one, and the wisdom of many Lord John Russell. 

These things have I spoken unto you in 2 j roverbs. — John, xvi., 24. 

And he spake many things unto them in parables.— Matt., xiii., 3. 

The first and most ancient inquirers into truth were wont to throw their knowledge 
into aphorisms, or short, scattered, unmethodical sentences. — Bacon. 

Exclusively of the abstract sciences, the largest and worthiest portion of our knowl- 
edge consists of aphorisms Coleridge. 

Proverbs are the gatherings of ages. Like pebble3 smoothed by the flood, they have 
flowed down the stream of time, divested of extraneous matter, rounded into harmo- 
nious couplets, or clenched into useful maxims. Less ornate and redundant than the 
productions of modern literature, they are far more instructive; they are the manual 
of practical wisdom compiled from the school of experience, and are thus the very salt 
of all knowledge ; and their precepts, as the actual results of life, circumstance, and 
occasion, are far preferable to the erring deductions of the speculative inquirer. — Thos. 
Fielding. 

Proverbs embrace the wide sphere of human existence ; they take all the colors of 
life ; they are often exquisite strokes of genius • they delight by their airy sarcasm or 
their caustic satire, the luxuriance of their humor, the playfulness of their turn, and 
even by the elegance of their imagery, and the tenderness of their sentiment. They 
give a deep insight into domestic life, and open for us the heart of man in all the va- 
rious states he may occupy. A frequent review of proverbs should enter into our read- 
ings — Curiosities of Literature. 

With the above commendations of proverbs — a general term under 
which may be included maxims, mottoes, aphorisms, apophthegms, ad- 
ages, wise sayings, saws, etc. — we would suggest a caution against their 
too frequent use, except as media of instruction, and also against the use 
of such as are not elegant and refined. Although once considered the 
ornaments of conversation, they are no longer so regarded by the polite, 
probably because they at one time became so common ; but, in the lan- 
guage of D'Israeli, "they have not ceased to be the treasures of thought." 
They may be made to subserve a most excellent purpose in school in- 
struction. See the foregoing Programme : 

1. To be happy you must be good. 

2. A kindness is never lost. 

3. A wise son maketh a glad father. 

4. Scorn to do a mean action. 

5. Honesty is the best policy. 

6. Never give a hasty reply. 



320 APPENDIX. 

7. In most quarrels there is a fault on both sides. 

8. A little neglect may cause great mischief. 

9. A small spark may kindle a great fire. 

10. A confessed fault is half mended. 

11. Do unto others as you would have them do to you. 

12. Do what you ought, come what may. 

13. Time will bring to light whatever is hidden. 

14. Trifles often lead to serious matters. 

15. Truth is the highest ornament of youth. 

16. Lying lips are an abomination to the Lord. 

17. Merit will surely meet with a reward. 

1 8. A boy is known by the company he keeps. 

19. He who fears God does not fear man. 

20. The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom. 

21. The angry man is a madman. 

22. It is sport to a fool to do mischief. 

23. A fool always finds a greater fool to admire him. 

24. Learning is better than houses, lands, or money. 

25. A place for every thing, and every thing in its place. 

26. One ill word asketh another. 

27. Show me a liar, and I'll show you a thief. 

28. One lie begets another. 

29. Oil and truth will get uppermost at last. 

30. A good name will shine forever. 

31. A liar is not to be believed though he speak the truth. 

32. Kind speeches comfort the heavy hearted. 

33. A soft answer turneth away wrath. 

34. Where there is a will there is a way. 

35. None so deaf as those that will not hear. 

36. When one will not, two can not quarrel. 

37. It is the second blow that makes the fray. 

38. The way to be truly honored is to be truly good. 

39. The more we serve God, the better we serve ourselves. 

40. The credit that is got by a lie only lasts till the truth is out, 

41. So long as you are ignorant, be not ashamed to learn. 

42. Small faults indulged are.Uttle thieves that let in greater. 

43. Manners and learning make a gentleman. 

44. Goodness always enriches the possessor. 

45. Kind words cost nothing, but are worth much. 

46. He is idle who might be better employed. 

47. He who resolves to do right has God on his side. 

48. Lazy folks take the most pains. 

49. Idleness is the parent of vice and misery. 

50. A good word for a bad one is worth much and costs little. 

51. Anger begins with folly and ends in sorrow. 



APPENDIX. 021 

52. Be always more ready to forgive than to return an injury. 

53. Experience is a dear school, but fools will learn in no other. 

54. Application in youth makes old age comfortable. 

55. A fault is made worse by endeavoring to conceal it. 

56. An angry man opens his mouth and shuts his eyes. 

57. A wager is a fool's argument. 

58. An oak is not felled with one blow. 

59. Better to be alone than in bad company. 

60. Doing nothing is doing ill. 

61. A jest is no argument. 

62. A drowning man will catch at a straw. 

63. A good name is better than riches. 

64. All is not gold that glitters. 

65. A rolling stone gathers no moss. 

66. Every man is the architect of his own fortune. 

67. He that will not be counseled can not be helped. 

68. He that does you an ill turn will never forgive you. 

69. Learning makes a man fit company for himself. 

70. Little and often fills the purse. 

71. Little strokes fell great oaks. 

72. Make the best of a bad bargain. 

73. One eyewitness is better than ten hearsays. 

74. One is not so soon healed as hurt. 

75. An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. 
7G. Say well is good, but do well is better. 

77. The worth of a thing is best known by the want of it. 

78. What can not be cured must be endured. 

79. Yielding is sometimes the best way for succeeding. 

80. A promise against law or duty is void in its own nature. 

81. A liar is a bravo toward God, and a coward toward men. 

82. A man that breaks his word bids others be false to him. 

83. A good life keeps off wrinkles. 

84. Amendment is the best sign of repentance. 

85. After praying to God not to lead you into temptation, do not 
throw yourself into it. 

86. Constant occupation prevents temptation. 

87. Envy shoots at others and wounds herself. 

88. Example teaches more than precept. 

89. He that swells in prosperity will shrink in adversity. 

90. If every one would mend one, all would be mended. 

91. Ignorance is a voluntary misfortune. 

92. Contempt will sooner kill an injury than revenge. 

93. An idle brain is the devil's workshop. 

94. A bad wound heals ; a bad name kills. 

95. A bad workman quarrels with his tools. 

O 2 



322 APPENDIX. 

96. A blithe heart makes a blooming visage. 

97. A burden which one chooses is not felt. 

98. A faithful friend is a strong defense. 

99. A flatterer is a most dangerous enemy. 

100. A fop is the tailor's friend and his own foe. 

101. A friend is never known till needed. 

102. A friend in need is a friend in deed. 

103. A great fortune is a great slavery. 

104. An evil conscience is the most unquiet companion. 

105. A man forewarned is forearmed. 

106. Advise not what is most pleasant, but what is most useful. 

107. A penny saved is a penny earned. 

108. A small leak will sink a great ship. 

109. A stitch in time saves nine. 

110. A young man idle, an old man needy. 

111. Affectation is at best a deformity. 

112. Affectation is part of the trappings of folly. 

113. Better face a danger than be always in fear. 

114. Before you promise, consider what you can perform. 

115. Avoid that which you blame in others. 

116. Beggars have no right to be choosers. 

117. Be slow to promise, and quick to perform. 

118. Birds of a feather flock together. 

119. Civility is a charm that attracts all men. 

120. By doing nothing we learn to do ill. 

121. Command your temper, lest it command you. 

122. Drive thy business, or thy business will drive thee. 

123. Every day of your life is a leaf in your history. 

124. Do nothing to-day that you are likely to repent of to-morrow. 

125. Deeds are fruits ; words are but leaves. 

126. Deep rivers flow in silence ; shallow brooks are noisy. 

127. Do nothing you would wish to conceal. 

128. Empty vessels make the greatest sound. 

129. Among the base, merit begets envy ; among the noble, emulation. 

130. A few books well chosen are of more use than a great library. 

131. Acquire honesty ; seek humility ; practice economy ; love fidelity. 

132. Against fortune oppose courage ; against passion, reason. 

133. A clear conscience fears no accuser. 

134. A good cause makes a stout heart and a strong arm. 

135. Affectation in dress implies a flaw in the understanding. 

136. A passionate man rides a horse that runs away with him. 

137. A gentle disposition is like an unruffled stream. 

138. A great man will neither trample on a worm nor sneak to a king. 

139. Apprehension of evil is often worse than the evil itself. 

140. By reading we enrich the mind, by conversation we polish it. 



APPENDIX. 323 

141. A wounded reputation is seldom cured. 

142. Better to suffer without cause than to have cause for suffering. 

143. Begin nothing until you have considered how it is to be finished. 

144. Be cautious of believing ill, but more cautious of reporting it. 

145. By entertaining good thoughts you will keep out evil ones. 

146. Courage without conduct is like a ship without ballast. 

147. Cherish thy friend, and temperately admonish thy enemy. 

148. Leave not for another what you can better do yourself. 

149. Close not your eyes at night till you have opened your lips in 
prayer. 

150. Two things a man should never be angry at : what he can help, 
and what he can not help. 

151. Envy can not see; ignorance can not judge. 

152. Eveiy body's business is nobody's business. 

153. Evil communications corrupt good manners. 

154. Every man who does a secret injury is a coward. 

155. False friends are worse than open enemies. 

156. Follow the wise few rather than the vulgar many. 

157. Fortune can take nothing from us but what she gave. 

158. The wicked flee when no man pursueth. 

159. God helps those who helps themselves. 

160. Good counsel is above all price. 

161. Grudge not another that which you can not attain yourself. 

162. He that is over-hasty fishes in an empty pond. 

163. He who avoids the temptation avoids the sin. 

164. He who masters his passions conquers his greatest enemy. 

165. Hope long deferred maketh the heart sick. 

166. He who says what he likes, must hear what he does not like. 

167. He who spends all he gets is on the high road to beggary. 

168. If the counsel be good, no matter who gave it. 

169. It is less painful to learn in youth than to be ignorant in age. 

170. If you wish a thing done, go ; if not, send. 

171. Ill will never spoke well. 

172. It is never too late to learn. 

1 „„ (Little boats must keep near shore ; 
(Large ships may venture more. 

174. Lose no opportunity of doing a good action. 

175. Let not the sun set upon your anger. 

176. Mildness governs better than anger. 

177. Necessity is the mother of invention. 

178. Never sport with pain or poverty. 

179. Nothing is so secret but time and truth will reveal it. 

180. Pardon others often, thyself seldom. 

181. Prudence guides the wise, but passion governs the foolish. 

182. Punishment and reward are like the bridle and spur. 



324 APPENDIX. 

183. Quarrels are easily begun, but with difficulty ended. 

184. Resist a temptation till you conquer it. 

185. Rich men depend on the poor, as well as the poor on them. 

186. Reform those things in yourself that you blame in others. 

187. Sneer not at that you can not rival. 

188. So live with men as if God saw you. 

189. Sands form the mountain ; moments make the year. 

190. Study mankind as well as books. 

191. Speak as you mean, do as you profess, and perform what you 
promise. 

192. Temperance is the best medicine. 

193. Some act first, think afterward, and repent forever. 

194. The hand of the diligent maketh rich. 

195. Time, patience, and industry are the three great masters of the 
world. 

196. The greater the difficulty, the more glory in surmounting it. 

197. Those who plot mischief live in fear and die miserable. 

198. Unmerited honors never wear well. 

199. Unprincipled men live knaves and die beggars. 

200. We are bound to be honest, but not to be rich. 

201. Virtue is a garment of honor, but wickedness a robe of shame. 

202. Vanity makes men ridiculous ; pride, odious. 

203. When men speak ill of you, live so that nobody will believe them. 

204. What sculpture is to a block of marble, education is to the mind. 

205. The wise man knows he knows but little; the fool thinks he 
knows all. 

206. He injures the good who spares the bad. 

207. Every fool can find faults that a great many wise men can't mend. 

208. A fool can ask questions that a wise man can not answer. 

209. Buy what you do not want, and you will sell what you can not 
spare. 

210. The wise man knows the fool, but the fool knows not the wise man, 

211. The worth of a thing is best known by the want of it. 

212. The devil goes away when he finds the door shut against him. 

213. Help yourself, and heaven .will help you. 

214. Those who live in glass houses should not throw stones. 

215. He who would catch fish must not mind getting wet. 

216. A thousand probabilities will not make one truth. 

217. By others' faults wise men correct their own. 

218. Strike the iron while it is hot. 

219. Make hay while the sun shines. 

220. He who rises late never does a good day's work. 

221. He that shows his passion tells his enemy where to hit him. 
fHe that would thrive must rise at five. 
[He that has thriven may lie till seven. 



222. jj 



APPENDIX. 325 

223. He that peeps through a hole may see what will vex him. 

224. Forbid a fool a thing, and that he'll do. 

225. To believe a business imposible is the way to make it so. 

226. Never make a mountain of a molehill. 

227. Patience is bitter, but the fruit is sweet. 

228. God tempers the wind to the shorn lamb. 

229. Better go around than fall into the ditch. 

230. He who thinks to deceive God has already deceived himself. 

231. Time is a file tbat wears and makes no noise. 

232. Between virtue and vice there is no middle path. 

233. He that would eat the kernel must not complain of cracking 
the nut. 

234. There is nothing so bad as not to be good for something. 

235. One to-day is worth two to-morrows. 

236. Error is worse than ignorance : for while the latter is a blank 
sheet on which we may write, the former is a scribbled one on which 
we must first erase. 

237. Those who value themselves merely on their ancestry have been 
compared to potatoes, as all that is good of them is under ground. 

238. An upright minister asks, What recommends a man ; a corrupt 
minister, Who. 

239. Virtue without talent is a coat of mail without a sword; it 
may, indeed, defend the wearer, but will not enable him to protect his 
friend. 

240. There are none so weak that we may venture to injure them 
with impunity ; and there are none so low that they may not at some 
time be able to return a kindness and repay an obligation. 

241. The excesses of our youth are drafts upon our old age, payable 
with interest about thirty years after date. 

242. There are three modes of bearing the ills of life : by indifference, 
which is the most common ; by philosophy, which is the most ostenta- 
tious ; and by religion, which is the most effectual. 

243. Variety is the relaxation of a great mind, and amusement its 
repose. 

244. If you wish to recommend yourself to a great and good man, 
take care that he quits your society with a good opinion of you; if your 
object is to please a vain man, take care that he leaves you with a good 
opinion of himself. 

245. Murmur not at misfortunes : if our ills can be cured, it is un- 
grateful ; if they can not be, it is vain. 

246. In any art trifles make perfection, but perfection is no trifle. 

247. The only thing which we are sure to want happens to be the 
only thing which we never purchase — our coffin ! 

248. Wealth is a relative thing ; since he that has little, and wants 
less, is richer than he that has much, and wants more. 



326 APPENDIX. 

249. While pride makes some men ridiculous, it prevents others from 
becoming so. 

250. He that can please nobody is not so much to be pitied as he 
whom nobody can please. , 

251. Deliberate with caution, but act with decision; and yield with 
graciousness, or oppose with firmness. 

252. Whoever dreads punishment, suffers it ; and whoever deserves 
it, dreads it. 

253. If you will not hear Reason, she will surely rap your knuckles. 

254. Some are very busy and yet do nothing. 

255. Physicians rarely take medicine, and lawyers seldom go to law. 

256. He that wants health wants eveiy thing. 

257. The poor man walks to get meat for his appetite, the- rich man 
to get appetite for his meat. 

258. Sickness is felt, but health not at all. 

259. Good-nature is natural politeness. 

260. Nothing but religion is capable of changing pains into pleasures. 

261. It is more honorable to acknowledge our faults than to boast of 
our merits. 

262. Is it not astonishing that the love of repose keeps us in continual 
agitation ? 

263. How benevolent are misers ! They amass wealth for those who 
wish their death ! 

264. When we can not find contentment in ourselves, it is useless to 
seek it elsewhere. 

265. Have the courage to obey your Maker at the risk of being rid- 
iculed by man. 

266. Have the courage to show your preference for honesty in what- 
ever guise it appears, and your contempt for vice surrounded by attrac- 
tions. 

267. Have the courage to admit that you have been in the wrong, 
and you will remove the fact from the mind of others. 

268. Have the courage to wear your old garments till you can pay for 
new ones. 

269. Have the courage to own that you are poor, and you disarm pov- 
erty of its sharpest sting. 

270. Have the courage to do without that which you do not need, 
however much you may admire it. 

271. Have the courage to speak your mind when it is necessary that 
you should do so, and the self-control to hold your tongue when it is 
better that you should be silent. 

272. Have the courage to shut your eyes at the doubtful prospect of 
large profits, and to be content with the certainty of small ones. 



CONTENTS. 



INTRODUCTORY. 
The Principles on which the System of Object Teaching is based. 

1. The System not new in Principle Page 3 

2. Nature's System of Teaching 3 

3. Early Development of the Perceptive Faculties 4 

4. The " Elementary" Theory generally adopted 5 

5. Nature's System — how opposed to it 6 

6. The great Error in our Systems of Primary Instruction 10 

7. All Science built upon the " Object" System ; 11 

8. Why Science is adapted to Childhood 13 

9. Why " Grammar" is not adapted to Childhood 14 

10. How Language is to be taught 16 

11. Correction of bad Habits of Speech 17 

12. The " Natural Order" the first great Law of Development 18 

13. " Exercise" the second great Law of Development 19 

14. What the true Development System aims at 20 

15. No danger of carrying the System too far 21 



An Explanation of the School and Family Charts, with Sugges- 
tions of Principles and Methods of Development, and Inform- 
ation for the Teacher : designed for a Course of Elementary 
Instruction, and adapted to the System of Object Teaching. 
Chart No. I. Elementary. 

Words taught as the Representatives of Things Page 24 

Calling Words at Sight .* 26 

The Alphabet, Counting, and Printing 26 

Chart No. II. Reading : First Lessons. 
Six Divisions: Reading, Oral Composition, Spelling, Printing and Drawing, Count- 



ing. 



.28-32 



Chart No. III. Reading : Second Lessons. 
Reading, Oral Composition, Spelling, Printing and Drawing, Counting, Adding, and 

the Use of Figures 34-35 

Chart No. IV. Reading : TniRD Lessons. 
Reading, Oral Composition and Writing, Spelling, Printing and Drawing, Num- 
bers 35-38 

Chart No. V. Reading: Fourth Lessons. 
Reading, Oral Composition and Writing, Spelling, Printing and Drawing, Numbers, 

Punctuation, and Capitals 38-39 

Chart No. VI. Reading : Fifth Lessons. 
Reading, Oral Composition and Writing, Spelling, Printing and Drawing, Numbers, 

Punctuation, Capitals, etc 39-42 

Chart No. VII. Elementary Sounds. 
Long Sounds of the Vowels, Short Sounds, Double Sounds, Aspirates or Whispered 
Consonants, Sub-vocals, Exercises, Compositions 42-48 

\ 



328 CONTENTS. 

Chart No. VIII. Phonic Spelling. 
Phonic Spelling, Phonetic Analysis, Compositions Page 48-50 

Chabt No. IX. Writing 50 

Chabt No. X. Drawing. 

Part I. First Lessons in Drawing 51 

Part II. Geometrical Drawing 54 

Part III. Linear Perspective 63 

Chart No. XL Likes and Measures 79 

First Principles in Geography 82 

Chart No. XII. Forms and Solids 89 

Chabt No. XIII. Familiar Colors 92 

Chart No. XIV. Chromatic Scale of Colors. 

I. General Principles of Light, Darkness, and Color 97 

n. Comhinations of Colors, as shown by the Chromatic Scale 93 

III. Table of Colors ; their Combinations, Proportions, and Complementaries . . 103 

IV. Tones ; embracing Tints and Shades of Colors 105 

. V. Hues of Colors 107 

VI. Complementary Colors 109 

VII. The Harmony of Colors + 110 

VIII. Discordant Effects of the Juxtaposition of non-complementary Colors 116 

IX. Arrangement of Colors with White 120 

X. Arrangement of Colors with Black 121 

XI. Arrangement of Colors with Gray 122 

XII. Modifications in Colors produced by colored Lights falliDg upon them 123 

XIII. Of Colors in Clothing : 1. Men's Clothing ; 2. Female Clothing— Blondes ; 3. Fe- 

male Clothing — Brunettes ; 4. The copper-colored, black, or olive-colored 
Races 124-1 28 

XIV. Harmony of Colors in Nature 128 

Chart No. XV. Zoological : Economical Uses op Animals. 
No. 1. Cattle; 2. Horses; 3. Swine; 4. Sheep; 5. Goats; 6. Elephants; 7. Camels; 
8. Dogs ; 9. Fur-bearing Animals ; 10. Llamas 131-155 

Representatives of some of the leading Orders and Divisions of Quadrupeds. 
11. The Monkey Tribe; 12. Lions; 13. Cats; 14. Rabbits ; 15. Giraffes; 16. Deer; 
17. The Rhinoceros ; 18. The Hippopotamus ; 19. Beavers; 20. Armadillos and Pan- 
golins 155-162 

Chabt No. XVI. Zoological : Classification of Animals. 
First Class of the Vertebrates : the Mammalia. 
Races of Mankind ; First Order of the Mammalia, Quadru'mana ; Second Order, Car- 
nivora; Third Order, Ungulata; Fourth Order, Rodentia ; Fifth Order, Marsupialia ; 
Sixth Order, Cetacea .162-169 

Chabt No. XVH. Zoological — Continued. 
Second Class of the Vertebrates : Birds. 
First Order, Birds of Prey ; Second Order, Sparrows, Perchers, or Singing-birds ; Third 
Order, Climbers ; Fourth Order, Scratchers ; Fifth Order, Runners ; Sixth Order, 
Waders; Seventh Order, Swimmers 169-173 

Chart No. XVLH. Zoological — Continued. 
Third Class of the Vertebrates; Reptiles. 
First Order, Chelonians or Turtles ; Second Order, Saurians or Lizard Reptiles ; Third 
Order, Ophidians or Serpents ; Fourth Order, Amphibians or Batrachians. .173-175 



CONTENTS. 329 

Fourth Class of Vertebrates : Fishes. 
First Order, Spine-rayed bony Fishes ; Second Order, Soft-rayed bony Fishes ; Third 
Order, Cartilaginous Fishes Page 175-177 

Chart No. XIX. Botanical. 
Forms of Leaves, Stems, Roots, and Floicers. 

I. General Forms and Arrangement of Leaves ; 2. Forms of the Margins of Leaves ; 
3. Forms of the Apexes or Ends of Leaves; 4. Curiosities of Leaves; 5. Frequent 
Forms of the Stems of Plants ; C. Forms of the Roots of Plants ; 7. Forms of Flow- 
ers ; 8. Forms of Flower-stems 177-180 

Chart No. XX. Botanical : tiie Classification op Plants. 
I. The Linnsean System of Classification 191-198 

II. The Natural Method of Classification 198-209 

Cuaet No. XXI. Botanical : Economical Uses of Plants. 
I. Our Common Fruits: Appie, Pear, Quince, Peach, Plum, Apricot, Grape, Cur- 
rant, Filbert, Gooseberry, Raspberry, Blackberry, Strawberry 210-220 

II. Common Hoot Plants: Radish, Sweet Potato, Common Potato, Onion, Turnip, 
Parsnip, Carrot, Beet 220-226 

III. Cereals or Com Plants: Wheat, Rye, Barley, Buckwheat, Rice, Millet, Oat, In- 

dian Corn, Sugar-cane 22G-238 

IV. Fruits of WamuCountries : Cocoanut, Mango, Fig, Date, Olive, Pomegranate, 

Pine-apple, Bread-fruit, Orange, Lemon 238-249 

Chart No. XXII. Botanical : Economical Uses of Plants — Continued. 
V. Medicinal Plants: Rhubarb, Sarsaparilla, Jalap, Poppy, Senna, Ipecac, Gen- 
tian, Peruvian Bark, Castor-oil Plant 249-250 

"VI. Plants used for Beverages: Tea-plant, Coffee, Paraguay Tea, Cocoa or Choco- 
late, Chiccory, Hop 25G-26G 

"VTI. Plants used for Manufactures : Cotton, Hemp, Flax, Mulberry 260-274 

VIII. Miscellaneous: Tobacco, Cocculus Indicus, Vanilla, Varnish -tree, Fish Poi- 
son 274-278 

IX. Pla7its used for Coloring: Indigo-plant, Saffron, Logwood, Madder 27S-2S2 

X. Spices : Allspice, Ginger, Cinnamon, Nutmeg, Clove 2S2-286 

Other Spices: Black, White, Cayenne, and Rad Pepper, etc., etc 286-287 



APPENDIX. 

I. An approximate Programme for a Course of elementary Instruction during the 

first ten Years of School Life 289-318 

II. Maxima and Mottoes, Aphorisms and Troverbs, for the Schoolroom 319-326 



INDEX OF SUBJECTS, 

WITH REFERENCES TO THE SAME SUBJECTS IN THE SCHOOL AND 
FAMILY READERS. 



Aceogens, a class of plants, 208. (Fifth R, 
144, 196.) 

Acuminate leaves^ 183. 

Acute leaves, 183. 

Aglumaceous, 206. (Fifth R, 186.) 

Algebra. See Programme of Studies, 315, 
316. 

Allspice, pimento, or Jamaica pepper, 282. 

Alphabet, elementary theory of teaching 
the, 5, T; beginning of instruction in, 
26. See Programme of Studies, 291. 

Ament, or catkin, 1S8. 

Amphibians, 1T5. (Fifth R., 72.) 

Anatomy, true course of instruction in, by 
objects, 12. 

Angiosperms, 195, 198, 199. (Fifth R., 144, 
14T.) 

Animals, economical uses of, 130 to 161 ; 
Ruminating, 132, 151, 166 ; Carnivorous, 
452, 165 ; Gsaminivorous, 152 ; Digiti- 
grade, 152 ; Plantigrade, 153, note ; Fur- 
bearing, 153; Rodents, 15S, 160, 168; 
Classification of, 162 ; Vertebrate, 163 ; 
Insect-eating, 166; Hoofed quadrupeds, 
166; Toothless quadrupeds, 107; Pouch- 
ed quadrupeds, 168 ; Whale tribe of, 168. 
See, also, Programme of Studies, 291-306. 
(Third R., 87-242; Fourth R., 77-16S ; 
Fifth R., 51-72, 223-268.) 

Annual plants, 185. (Fourth R., 187.) 

Antelope family, 167. (Third R., 225.) 

Apetalous plants, 199, 204. (Fifth R, 174.) 

Apple, description of, and kinds of, 210; 
Mango apple, 239 ; Carthaginian apple, 
245 ; Pine-apple, 246. (Fourth R, 213 ; 
Fifth R, 151.) 

Apricot, description of, 214. (Fifth R., 
151.) 

Aquarium, the, 177. (Fourth R, 211 ; Fifth 
R., 268.) 

Arithmetic, elementary theory of teaching, 
5 ; how it should be taught, 9. See Pro- 
gramme of Studies, 291-316. 

Armadillos, 162, 167. (Third R., 230.) 

Astronomy, true course of instruction in, 12. 

Auriculate leaf, 180. 

Banana, fruit, 245. 
Barley, 207, 229. 

Batrachians, 175. (Fifth R., 72.) 
Bats, 165. (Third R., 104.) 
Beavers, 160. (Third R., 232.) 
Beet, description of, 225. 



Belladonna, 274. 

Bell-shaped, 187. 

Bergamot, 248. 

Beverages, plants used for, 256. 

Biennials, 185. 

Birch family of plants, 205. (Fifth R. , 181 .) 

Birds, 169; Birds of prey, 170; Perchers 

or Singers, 171; Climbers, Scratchers, 

172 ; Runners, Waders, Swimmers, 173. 

(Fourth R, 77-170.) 
Blackberry, description of, 218. 
Bobolink, the, 171, 232. 
Bones of cattle, uses of, 134. 
Book-keeping, elementary, 314-316. 
Botany, how the science has grown up, 11 ; 

Descriptive, 177 to 287. (Fourth R, 

171-229 ; Fifth R., 140-212.) 
Bread-fruit, 247. 
Brisket of an ox, 136, note. 
Broadcloth, 143. 
Broom-corn, 233. 
Buckwheat, 230, 249. 
Burler, a, 143. 
Butterfly-shaped, 187. 

Cabinets of seeds, 220; geological, 302. 
Cactus family of plants, 202. (Fifth R., 

158.) 
Calicoes, cloth, 26S. 

Calyx described, 190. (Fourth R., 219.) 
Cambrics, cloth, 26S. 
Camel, 150; American, 154, 167. (Third 

R., 205.) 
Camellia family of plants, 202. (Fifth R., 

154.) 
Campanulate or bell-shaped, 187. 
Camphor, oil of, 284. 
Camwood, 2S1. 
Capital letters, 39, 41. 
Cards, Type letter, 29. 
Carinate, 229. 
Carnivorous quadrupeds, 152, 165. (Third 

R., 88.) 
Carrot, description of, 224. 
Caryophyllaceous, 187. 
Cashew-nut, 378. 
Cashmere cloth, 143 ; Cashmere goats and 

shawls, 146. (Third R., 219.) 
Cassimere cloth, 143. 
Castor-oil plant, 254. 
Catgut, 141, note. 
Catkin, or ament, 188. 
Cats, 157. (Third R, 122.) 

\ 



332 



INDEX. 



Cattle, description of, 131 to 136; kinds of, 

135, 167. (Third E., 21T.) 
Cayenne pepper, 286. 

Cereals, the, 2l)7, 226. (Fifth E., 192-194.) 

Chamomile, 280. 

Cheese, what it is, 134, note. 

Chemistry, course of instruction in, 12. 

Chest of an ox, 136, note. 

Chiccory, 204. 

Chintz, cloth, 268. 

Chocolate, 203. 

Cinnamon, tree, 2S4 ; oil of, 284. 

Circle, to find the centre of, 57 ; to inscribe 
in a triangle, 58; to describe about a tri- 
angle, 5S ; in a square, 58 ; to describe a 
square about, 59 ; to inscribe in a square, 
59 ; to describe about a square, 59 ; to in- 
scribe an octagon in, 59 ; to inscribe a 
hexagon in, 59; to inscribe a pentagon 
in, 60 ; concentric circle, SO ; degrees of 
a circle, 81 ; definition of a circle, 91. 

Citron family of plants, 202 ; fruits, 249. 
(Fifth E., 156.) 

Classification, principles of, 11. 

Cloths, woolen, 143 ; cotton, 268, 269 ; 
hempen, 269 ; linen, 271 ; silken, 274. 

Cloves, tree, 2S5 ; oil of, 286. 

Cocculus indicus, 276, 277. 

Cochineal, 2S1. 

Cocoanut, 23S. (Fifth E., 189.) 

Cocoa, or chocolate, 262. 

Cocoons, silk, 273. 

Coffee, tree and bean, 259 ; effects of drinkr 
ing, 260. 

Coloring, plants used for, 279. 

Colors, familiar, 92; description of, 92 to 
96 ; chromatic scale of, 96, 98 ; general 
principles of, 97 ; names and groupings 
of, 99, 102; hot and cold, 102; retiring 
and advancing, 102; combinations, pro- 
portions, and complementaries of, 103; 
exercises in, 103, 104, 109, 111, 113, 115, 
117, 119, 121, 123, 124; tones, tints, and 
shades of, 105 ; hues of, 107 ; great num- 
ber of, 108; complementary, 109; har- 
mony of, 110; in Nature, 128 ; discordant 
effects of, 116 ; arrangement of, with 
white, 120; with black, 121; with gray, 
122; modifications of, by colored lights, 
123 ; effects of, in clothing and upon the 
complexion, 124 to 128. See Programme 
of Studies, 291. 

Common fruits, 202, 210. (Fifth E., 151.) 

Common things, instruction in, 21, 22. 

Composing-frame, Note, 29. 

Composite family of plants, 203. 

Compositions, oral, 28, 30, 31, 33, 36, 3S, 40, 
136 ; written, 37, 38, 40, 47, 78, 88, 91, 129, 

136, 139, 162, 173, 175, 177, 183, 197, 209. 
See Programme of Studies, 291. 

Compound flowers, 196. (Fifth E., 145, 164.) 
Cone-bearing plants, 206, 242. (Fifth E., 

182.) 
Cone, definition of,. 91. 
Conical root, 186. 
Construction, principles and practice of, 54. 

See Programme of Studies, 292-316. 
Cordate leaf, 180. 



Corduroys, cloth, 269. 

Conn, or bulb, 186. (Fourth E., 184.) 

Corolla, 190, 194, 235. (Fourth E., 21S, 219.) 

Corymb, 188. 

Cotton-plant, 266 ; cotton gin, 267 ; cotton 

cloths, 26S. (Fifth E., 156.) 
Counterpanes, cloth, 268. 
Counting, first exercises in,' 9, 26. See 

Programme of Studies, 291. 
Crenate and crenulate leaves, 1S3. 
Crocodiles, 174. (Fifth E., 65.) 
Cross-shaped, 187. 

Cruciform, 1S7, 196. (Fifth E., 145.) 
Cryptogamous plants, 198, 208. (Fifth E., 

144, 196.) 
Cuneate leaf, 179. 
Currant, description of, 216. 
Cuspidate leaf, 184. 

Damask, cloth, 268. 

Date, fruit of date palm, 240. (Fifth E., 

1S9.) 
Deciduous leaves, calyx, etc., 190. (Fourth 

E., 193, 196.) 
Declamations. See Programme of Studies, 

30S-316. 
Deer, 159, 107. (Third E., 209.) 
Delirium tremens produced by tea, 261. 
Dentate and denticulate leaves, 183. 
Development system, 3; natural order of, 

IS, 19 ; what it aims at, 20 ; no danger 

of carrying it too far, 21. 
Dewlap, of an ox, 36, note. 
Dictation exercises. See Programme of 

Studies, 308-316. 
Dodecahedron, 60, 62. 
Dogs, description of, and kinds of, 151-2. 

(Third E., 130, 144.) 
Donkey, the, 139, note. 
Doves, 172. (Fourth E., 143, 164.) 
Drawing, first exercises in, 26, note, 27-8 ; 

farther directions for, 51 to 54; geomet- 
rical, 54 to 63 ; perspective, 63 to 78 ; 

from Nature, 182. See Programme of 

Studies, 291. 
Dromedary, 150. (Third E., 205.) 
Dyer's broom, 196, 2S0; dyer's weed, 280. 

Elementary sounds, when they should be 
learned, 9, 42 ; what they are, 10 ; exer- 
cises in, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47. 

Elementary theory of instruction, 5, 7, 10. 

Elements of a subject, what they are, 10. 

Elephants, description of, and uses, 147-9. 
(Third E., 182.) 

Elevation in astronomy, 81. 

Ellipse, how to describe, 61 ; definitions of, 
80, 90. 

Elliptical leaf, 179. 

Elm, family of plants, 205. (Fifth E. ,178.) 

Emarginate leaves, 184. 

Endogenous plants, 198, 206. (Fourth E., 
174, 176, 182, 186-7; Fifth E., 144, 156.) 

Equilateral triangle, 90. 

Equitant leaf, 182. 

Ergot, of rye, 229. 

Exercise, in language, 16, 17 ; the great law 
of man's nature, 19-20. 



INDEX. 



333 



Exogenous plants, 198, 199. (Fourth R., 
174, 176, 182, 1S7 ; Fifth R., 144, \4g.) 

Falcons, 170. (Fourth R., S4.) 

Farming, true couree of instruction in, 13. 

Felting, felt, cloth, 144. 

Fig, plant and fruit, 239. 

Filbert, plant and fruit, 216. 

Fishes, their several classes or divisions, 

175-177. (Fifth R, 223 to 268.) 
Fish-poison, plant, 27S. 
Flax plant, 271. 
Florets of compound flowers, 196, 199. 

(Fifth R., 164.) 
Flowers, forms of, 1S6-; flower-stems, 1S8. 

(Fourth R., 218-220.) 
Forms and solids, S9; definitions of, 90, 

91 ; forms of leaves, stems, roots, and 

flowers, 17S to 189. 
Fuller, a, 143. 
Fungi, or fungous plants, 209. (Fifth I!., 

206-7.) 
Funnel-shaped, 187. 
Furs, animals which produce them, 153. 

(Third R., 152-161, 231.) 
Fusiform root, 186. 
Fustians, cloth, 26S. 
Fustic wood, 280. 

Gentian, plant, 254. 

Geography, elementary theory of teaching, 
5 ; first principles in, 82 to SS. See Pro- 
gramme of Studies, 297-316. (Physical 
Geography, Fiftli R., 365-407.) 

Geology, true course of instruction in, 12, 
13, 14. (Fifth R., 457-4S8.) 

Geometrical drawing, 54 to 63. 

Geometry, primary instruction in, 9, 10. 

Ginger, 268. 

Ginghams, 268. 

Giraffes, 15S, 167. (Third R., 115, 205.) 

Glumaceous plants, 207, 227. (Fifth R., 
144, 193.) 

Goats, 145, 167. (Third R., 219.) 

Gooseberry plant, 217. 

Grammar, elementary theory of teaching, 
5; why not adapted to childhood, 14, 15; 
views of, by Herbert Spencer and others, 
16. See Programme of Studies, 311-316. 

Grape, kinds of, etc., 214; wine from, 215. 

Guava fruits, 283. 

Gunny-bags, 269. 

Gymnosperms, 195, 198. 206. (Fifth R., 
144, 183,.) 

Hashish, 270. 

Hastate leaf, 180. 

Hazel-nuts, see Filbert, 216. 

Heath plant, 204. (Fifth R., 169.) 

Hemisphere, definition of, 91. 

Hemp, plant, 269. 

Henbane, 274. 

Herbaceous plants, 2S5. (Herbs, Fourth 

R., 187.) 
Herbariums, 198, 201. 
Heptagon, 90. 

Hexagon, to inscribe in a circle, 59, 90. 
Hexahedron, 62. 



Hippopotamus, 160. (Third R., 188.) 
History and geography, see Programme of 

Studies, 30J-316. 
Honeysuckle plants, 204. (Fifth R., 168.) 
Hoofs of cattle, uses of, 134. 
Hop plant, 265. 
Horns of cattle, uses of, 134. 
Horses, colors of, sounds which they make, 

137 ; uses of, 138, 167. (Third R., 191- 

204.) 
Hypocrateriform, 186. 

Icosahedron, the, 63. 

Incised leaves, 184. 

Inclination, in astronomy, 81. 

Indian corn, 226, 234. (Fifth R., 193.) 

Indigo plant, 277. (Fifth R., 161.) 

Infundibuliform, 187. 

Instruction, true method of, 12-13. 

Ipecacuanha, 253. 

Iris family of plants, 206. (Fifth R., 186.) 

Isosoceles triangles, 90. 

Ivory, 147-S-9. (Third R., 172, 183.) 

Jalap plant, 250. 
Jeans, cloth, 269. 

Jessamine family of plants, 204. (Fifth R. , 
108.) 

Kemp, wool or hair of goat, 146. 

Kersey, cloth, 143. 

Kids, kid gloves, etc. , 147. (Third R. , 220. ) 

Labiate flowers, 1S7; plants, 204. (Fifth 
R., 172.) 

Lanceolate leaf, 179. 

Language, grows up as a habit, 14 ; how it 
is to be taught, 10, 17, 18. See Pro- 
gramme of Studies, 291. 

Leather, 134. 

Leaves, forms of, 11, 12; forms and ar- 
rangement of, 178 ; forms of the margins 
of, 1S3; forms of the apexes or ends of, 
184 ; curiosities of, 184. (See, also, Fourth 
R., 192-198, 214-216, 223). 

Leguminous plants, 203. (Fifth R., 161.) 

Lemon, 249. (Citron family, Fifth R., 154, 
156.) 

Lemurs, 165. (Third R., 104.) 

Lignum vitas wood, 283. 

Liliaceous plants, 187. (Fourth R., 186.) 

Lily family of plants, 206. (Fourth R., 1S6.) 

Lily-shaped, 187. 

Lime, fruit, 249. (Fifth R., 157.) 

Linear leaf, 179. 

Linen, cloth, 271. (Fibres of, Fourth R., 
181.) 

Lines and measures, 79, 80. 

Linneean system of classification, 191. 
(Fifth R., 142, 143.) 

Linsey-woolsey, cloth, 143. 

Lions, 156. (Third R., 107-116.) 

Lip-shaped flowers, 1S7. (Fifth R., 172.) 

Lizards, 174. (Fifth R., 61.) 

Llamas, 154. (Third R, 206.) 

Logwood, 2S0. (Fifth R., 161.) 

Mace, from nutmegs, 205. 



334 



INDEX. 



Madder, 281. 

Magnetic needle, inclination of, 81. 

Maize, or Indian corn, 207, 226, 234 (Fifth 
R., 193.) 

Malt, 230. 

Mango, fruit, 239. 

Manilla, 269. 

Manners and morals. See Programme of 
Studies, 292-316. 

Manual labor schools, 55, note. 

Manual of Object Lessons, Calkins's, refer- 
red to, 22, 24, 129, and throughout the 
Programme, 2S9-316. 

Manufactures, plants used for, 266. 

Marmalade, 248. 

Maxims and mottoes, collection of, 319 ; 
use of, in school instruction, see Pro- 
gramme of Studies, 295-316. 

Medicine, plants used for, 249. 

Milk of cows, uses of, 133. 

Millet, plant, 20T, 233. (Fifth P., 1,93.) 

Moleskin, cloth, 26S. 

Monkey tribe, 156, 165. (Third R. , 89-104 ) 

Monopetalous plants, 199, 203. (Fourth R., 
219. In Fifth R., from 164 to 1T4, the 
plants are monopetalous.) 

Mordants, for setting colors, 282. 

Morocco leather, 146. (Third R., 220.) 

Morphine, 253. 

Mucronate leaf, 184 

Mulberry-tree, 272. 

Mule, 139, note. 

Music, singing, etc. See Programme of 
Studies, 292-316. 

Muslins, cloth, 269. 

Napiform root, 186. 

Natural order of the presentation of sub- 
jects, 18. 

Natural Philosophy. See Programme of 
Studies, 315, 316. (Fourth R., 276-325; 
Fifth R., 317-356.) 

Nature's system of teaching, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 19. 

Nightshades, plants, 274. 

Numbers, early exercises in, 30, 31, 32, 34, 
37, 3S, 40. See Programme of Studies, 
291. 

Nutmeg-tree, 284. 

Nux vomica, 266. 

Oak family of plants, 204 (Fourth R., 
175-6; Fifth R., 174) 

Oats, 207, 234. (Fifth R., 193.) 

Ob-cordate leaf, ISO, 184. 

Object system, the, not new in principle, 3, 
11; its applications, 14; no danger of 
carrying it too far, 21 ; not the science of 
" common things," 21 ; principles of, 3- 
22, 289, 290, 316. 

Ob-lanceolate leaf, 179. 

Ob-ovate leaf, 179. 

Obtuse leaves, 184. 

Octagon, to inscribe in a circle, 59 ; defini- 
tion of, 90. 

Octahedron, 62. 

Olive, plant, 242; olive-oil, 243, 252. 

Onion, plant, 222. 

Opium, 252. 



Orange, 247. (Fifth R., 156-7.) 

Oval^9(l. 

Ovary, seed-vessel, 191. 

Ovate leaf, 179. 

Owls, 170. (Fifth R., 97.) 

Palmate leaf, 181. 

Palm family of plants, 207. (Fifth R. , 189. ) 

Pangolins, 162 (or ant-eaters, Third R., 
229). 

Panicle, 188, 234. 

Papilionaceous flowers, 187, 195. (Fifth R. , 
161.) 

Paraguay tea-plant, 261. 

Parallelogram, 90. 

Parchment, 141, note. 

Parsnip, plant, 224. 

Peach, fruit, 213. (Fifth R., 152.) 

Pear, fruit, 212. (Fifth R., 152.) 

Pedicel, 188. 

Peltate leaf, ISO. 

Penmanship, 50, 51. 

Pentagon, to inscribe in a circle, 60 ; def- 
inition of, 90. 

Pepper, Jamaica, 2S2 ; black, 2S6 ; Cay- 
enne, 2S6 ; red, 2S7. 

Perception, what it is, 6, 8 ; facts first learn- 
ed by it, 10. 

Perceptive faculties, early development of, 
4, 6, 13 ; cultivation of, 16 ; the materials 
of our knowledge derived through them, 
19 ; voluntary exercise of the, 21. 

Perennials, 185. (Fourth R., 1S5, 187, 220.) 

Perfoliate leaf, 181. 

Perpendiculars, 56, 57. 

Personate flower, 187. 

Perspective, linear, 63 ; perspective, plane, 
64 ; vanishing points, 65; point of sight, 
66 ; centre of the picture, 67 ; horizontal 
line, 67 ; exercises in perspective draw- 
ing, 65 to 78. 

Peruvian bark, 254. 

Petals, 190. (Fourth R., 219.) 

Petersham cloth, 143. 

Petiole, 179. 

Phonetic analysis, 49. 

Phonics, phonic spelling, 48, 49. 

Physical exercises. See Programme of Stud- 
ies, 291-316. 

Pilot-cloth, 143. 

Pine-apple, 246. (Fifth E-, 135.) 

Pink-shaped, 187. 

Pinnate and pinnatifid, 181. 

Pistil of the flower, 191. (Fourth R., 218, 
223.) 

Plantain-tree, fruit of, 245. 

Plants, descriptions of, 177-2S7 ; econom- 
ical uses of, 209-287. See Programme 
of Studies, 291-313. (Fourth R., 171- 
229; Fifth R., 140-212.) 

Plum, fruit, 213. 

Poisons, medicinal, vegetable, 274 

Pollen of plants, 191, 235. 

Polyhedrons, the five regular, 61, 63. 

Polypetalous plants, 199, 201 . (Fourth R. , 
219; Fifth R., all the plarts from 147 
to 164.) 

Pomegranate, 244. 



INDEX. 



335 



Poppy, 251. 

Potato, sweet, 221 ; common, 221. 

Pouched quadrupeds, 168. (Third R. , 236. ) 

" Primary Object Lessons," references to, 
82, note, 89, and throughout the Pro- 
gramme of Studies, 289-316. 

Principles of science— the generalization of 
facts, 10, 11. • 

Printing letters, 26, 29, 30, 31, 32, 84, 3T, 
38, 40. See Programme, 291. 

Prism, 91. 

Proverbs, maxims, etc., collection of, 319. 

Punctuation, 39, 41. 

Quadrant, definition of, 91. 
Quercitron bark, 2S0. 
Quilts, cloth, 268 ; quiltings, 269. 
Quince, description of, 212. 
Quinine, 254. 

Rabbits, 159. (Third R., 231.) 

Raceme, flower-stem. 188. 

Races of mankind, 163. 

Radish plant, 220. 

Raspberry plant, 218. 

Reading, elementary theory of teaching, 

5 ; how to teach, 8, 9 ; exercises in, 26, 

28, 30, 31, 32, 85, 38, 39. 
Renifonn leaf, 180. 

Repand, undulate, or wavy leaves, 183. 
Reptiles, 173; orders of, 174-5. (Fifth R, 

51-72.) 
Rhetoric and English literature. See Pro- 
gramme of Studies, 314-316. 
Rhinoceros, 160. (Third R., 187.) 
Rhomb, definition of, 90. 
Rhomboid, definition of, 90. 
Rhubarb, plant, 249. 
Rice-birds, 171, 232. 
Rice, plant, 207, 231. 
Ringent flower, 187. 
Rodents, or gnawing animals, 15S, ICO, 

168. (Third R., 231.) 
Roots of plants, 186. (Fourth R., 182- 

186.) 
Ruminating animals, 132, 151, 158, 166. 

(Third R., 205.) 
Runcinate leaf, 264. 
Rye, plant, 207, 228. 

Saffron, plant, 280. 

Sagittate leaf, 179. 

Salver-shaped flowers, 186. 

Sarsaparilla, plant, 250. 

Saurians, 174. (Fifth R, 61.) 

Science built up on the object system, 11 ; 

why adapted to childhood, 13, 14. 
Scourer, a, 143. 

Sea-weeds, 209. (Fifth R., 208-211.) 
Sector, definition of, 91. 
Sedge, plants, 207. (Fifth R., 190.) 
Semicircles, definition of, 91. 
Senna, plant, 253. 
Sensation, what it is, 6, 8. 
Sepals of the calyx, 1 90. (Fourth R. , 219.) 
Serpents, 174. (Fifth R, 69.) 
Serrate leaves, 183. 
Shaddock, fruit, 249. (Fifth R, 157.) 



Sheep, uses of, 141; kinds of, 142, 167. 

(Third R, 219-224.) 
Sheeting, cloth, 268. 
Shoddy, cloth, 144. 

Shrubs defined, 1S5; (Fourth R., 187.) 
Silk and silkworms, 272. 
Sinuate leaves, 1S3. 
Size and form. See Programme of Studies, 

292-299. 
Solids, fomis, etc., S9 ; definitions of, 90, 91. 
Spelling, elementary theory of teaching, 5 ; 

exercises in, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 37, 38, 40, 

182. 
Spermaceti, 169, note. (Third R., 23S.) 
Sphere and spheroid, 91. 
Spices, plants used for, 282, 286, 287. 
Spike, a flower-stem, 18S. 
Square, how to draw it, 57 ; definition of, 90. 
Stamens of the flower, 190. (Fourth R., 

218, 233.) 
Stems of plants, 185. 
Stipules, 179. 

Stomach of ruminating animals, cut of, 133. 
Stone-pine-tree, 242. (Fifth R., 183.) 
Stramonium, 274. 
Strawberry, plant and fruit, 218. 
Strychnine, 266. 
Sugar-cane, Chinese, 233; common, 236. 

(Fifth R, 193.) 
Sugar-mills, 236. 
Swine, uses of, etc., 139, 140, 167. (Third 

R., 189.) 

Tallow, 134. 

Tanning and tannin, 134, note. 

Tartan, cloth, 143. 

Tea-drinking, effects of, 25S. (Fifth R, 

155-6.) 
Tea plant, Chinese, 256 ; of Paraguay, 261. 

(Fifth R, 155.) 
Tetrahedron, 62, 91. 
Thallogcns, a class of plants, 208. (Fifth 

R, 144, and 202 to 212.) 
Tobacco plant, 274; uses of, 275, 276. 
Toothless quadrupeds, 167. (Third R, 229.) 
Trapezium and trapezoid, definitions of, 

90. 
Tree, defined, 185. 

Triangle, to inscribe a circle in, 58; to de- 
scribe a circle about, 5S; definition of, 

90. 
Trumpet-flower plants, 204. (Fifth R. , 172. ) 
Truncate leaves, 184. 

Tuber, tuberous root, 1S6. (Fourth R., 184.) 
Tubular, 187. 
Turmeric, 2S0, 2S4. 
Turnip, plant, 223. 

Turtles or tortoises, 174 (Fifth R. , 54-60.) 
Tweed, cloth, 143. 
Type Letter-cards, their use, 29, 30, 31, 34, 

37, 38, 40, 89. 

Umbel, form of flower-stem, 188. 
Umbelliferous plants, 203. (Fifth R., 161.) 

Vanilla, plant, 277. 
Varnish-tree, 278. 
Vellum, 149, note. 



336 



INDEX. 



Venison, 147. 
Vultures, 170. 



(Fourth E., 96.) 



Whale tribe of animals, 163. (Third E, 

238.) 
Wheat, plant, 207, 226. (Fifth E., 192.) 
Wheel-shaped, or rotate, 1S7. 
Whorled leaves, 182. 
Willow family of plants, 205. (Fifth R,, 

178.) 



Wines, from, grapes, 215. 

Woad, a plant, 279. 

Wool, qualities of, 142. 

Words, should not precede ideas, 6, 24; 

taught as the representatives of things, 

24 ; calling them at sight, 26. 
Worsted, 145. 
Writing, penmanship, 50, 51. 

Zebra, the, 139, note. (Third E., 191.) 



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